Aum Shinrikyo

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Template:Copyedit Aum Shinrikyo (also spelled Om Shinri Kyo) was a religious group which mixed Buddhist and Hindu beliefs and was based in Japan. It gained international notoriety in 1995, when a group of followers carried out a poison gas attack on the Tokyo subways. Since 2000, it has been called Aleph.

The name "Aum Shinrikyo" (Japanese: オウム真理教 Oumu Shinrikyō) derives from the Hindu syllable Aum (which represents the universe), followed by the three kanji characters shin ("truth," "reality," "Buddhist sect"), ri ("reason," "justice," "truth"), and kyō ("teaching," "faith," "doctrine"). In 2000, the organization changed its name to Aleph (the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet), changing their logo as well.

In 1995 the group was reported as having 9,000 members in Japan and as many as 40,000 worldwide. As of 2004, Aum Shinrikyo membership is estimated at 1,500 to 2,000 persons.

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Doctrine

Aum attempted to borrow scriptural authority for its doctrines by claiming they were based on the ancient Buddhist scriptures included in the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism. Aum/Aleph also borrowed and reinterpreted other religious texts, including a number of Tibetan Buddhist sutras, some Hindu yogic sutras and Taoist scriptures.

Some scholars of new religious movements view Aum's doctrine as a pastiche of various traditions, arguing that the primary deity revered by Aum followers is Shiva (the deity symbolizing the power of creation and the power of destruction in Hindu tradition). In fact, the Aleph's Lord Shiva (also known as Samantabhadra, Kuntu-Zangpo, or Adi-Buddha) derives from Tibetan Vajrayana tradition and has no connection to the Hindu Shiva. There is also controversy as to what role Christianity plays in Aleph's doctrine, since it was mentioned in some of Shoko Asahara's speeches and books. Asahara himself referred to Aum's doctrine as 'truth', arguing that 'while various Buddhist and yogic schools lead to the same goal by different routes, the goal remains the same' and insisting that the major world's religions are closely related. The 'true religion' in his view shouldn't only offer the path but to be actually able to lead to the final destination - Final Realization. On this path, a multitude of small enlightenments elevate the consciousness of a practitioner to a higher level, this making him smarter and better person. As Asahara believed the Buddhist path to be the most effective, he chose original Shakyamuni Buddha sermons as foundation, but added various elements from other tradition, such as Chinese gymnastics to improve the overall bodily health or yogic asanas to prepare for keeping a meditation posture. He also translated much of traditional Buddhist terminology to modern Japanese and later changed the wording to make the terms easier to understand, pointing to Shakyamuni who chose Pali instead of Sanskrit in order to make sermons accessible for ordinary population, who couldn't understand the language of ancient Indian educated elite.

In Shoko Asahara's view, Aum's doctrine encompassed all three major Buddhist schools: Theravada (aimed at personal enlightenment), Mahayana (the "great vehicle," aimed at helping others), and tantric Vajrayana (the "diamond vehicle," which involves secret initiations, secret mantras, and advanced esoteric meditations). In his book Initiation he compares the stages of enlightenment according to the deist Yoga Sutra by Patanjali with Buddhist Noble Eightfold Path, arguing that these two traditions speak about the same experiences in different words.

Asahara has also authored a number of other books, of which the best known are Beyond Life and Death, Mahayana-Sutra, and Initiation (translated into English). The books explains the process of attaining various stages of enlightenment provided in ancient scriptures and compares it with own experiences of Asahara and his followers. He also published commentaries to ancient scriptures.

Aum claimed to apply modern scientific methodologies to arrange studies in accordance with a special kogaku (learning) system, in which each new stage is reached only after examinations are passed successfully, imitating the familiar Japanese university entrance exam paradigm. Meditation practice is combined with and based upon theoretic studies.

Various authorities have cited non-Buddhist influences also, but the accuracy of these inferences about the internal philosophy of the group as distinct from its public statements has been questioned. For example, in an article about the influence that Isaac Asimov's The Foundation Series may have had on the Arabic Al-Qaeda and other organizations, the UK The Guardian newspaper wrote on 24 August 2002, "'Aum's bible was, believe it or not, the Foundation series by Isaac Asimov,' says David Kaplan, author of The Cult at the End of the World [ISBN 0517705435], a book on the sect, or 'guild' as it styled itself." [1]

Followers are divided into two groups: lay practitioners and "samana" (a Pali word for monks, but also used to include "nuns"), which comprise a "sangha" (monastic order). The former live with their families, the latter lead ascetic lifestyles, usually in groups.

According to Aum's classification, a follower can attain the following invented stages by religious practice: Raja Yoga, Kundalini Yoga, Mahamudra (sometimes called Jnana Yoga), Mahayana Yoga, Astral Yoga, Causal Yoga and the ultimate stage, the Ultimate Realization. The overwhelming majority of such alleged attainers were monks, though there were some lay Raja Yoga and Kundalini Yoga attainers. For a follower to be considered an attainer, specific conditions had to be met before senior sangha members recognized them as such. For instance, the "Kundalini Yoga" stage requires demonstration of reduction in oxygen consumption, changes in electromagnetic brain activity and reduction of heart rate (measured by corresponding equipment). A follower who demonstrates such changes is considered to have entered the "samadhi" state and thus deserved the title and permission to teach others. Each stage had its own requirements. Advancements in theoretical studies did not give followers the right to teach others anything except the basic doctrine. According to Asahara, real meditation experience could be the only criteria deciding the actual ability to coach.

Aum also inherited the Indian tradition of Shaktipat coming from esoteric yoga tradition, also mentioned in Mahayana Buddhist texts. The Shaktipat, which is believed to allow a direct transmission of spiritual energy from a teacher to a disciple, was practiced by Asahara himself and several of his top disciples, including Fumihiro Joyu and Hisako Ishii. Fumihiro Joyu also performed a shaktipat-like ceremony in the beginning of XXI century.

Following the formal closure of Aum Shinrikyo, a number of steps was undertaken that changed some of the aspects that concerned both the society and authorities. Some of the most controversial parts of the doctrine (see below for details) were removed, but the basic, general aspects remained intact. For this reason, information on religious doctrine remains largely relevant to new organization Aleph as well.

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Activities

The movement was granted an official "religious group" status by Japanese government in 1987. Founded by Shoko Asahara in his one-bedroom apartment in Tokyo's Shibuya district in 1984, it steadily grew the following years and attracted such a considerable number of young graduates from Japan's elite universities that it was soon dubbed a "religion for the elite" (statistically speaking the social diversity situation was better than publicized). Asahara engaged in lecture tours, during which he explained his views on religion, society and life and answered questions, reportedly with unusual wit.

Asahara also traveled abroad on multiple occasions and met various notable yogic and Buddhist religious teachers and figures, such as the 14th Dalai Lama and Kalu Rimpoche, a patriarch of the Tibetan Kagyupa school. Aum's activities aimed at the popularization of Buddhist texts were also noted by the governments of Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and the Tibetan government-in-exile located in Dharamsala, India. While Aum was considered a rather controversial phenomena in Japan, it was not yet associated with serious crimes. It was during this period when Asahara received rare Buddhist scriptures and awarded a stupa with remains of Shakyamuni Buddha.

Aum's PR activities included publishing. In Japan, where comics and animated cartoons enjoy unprecedented popularity among all ages, Aum attempted to tie religious ideas to popular anime and manga themes - space missions, extremely powerful weapons, world conspiracies and conquest for ultimate truth. Although followers were discouraged from consuming Aum's publications like Enjoy the Happiness and Vajrayana Sacca aimed primarily at the outside world, researchers later misinterpreted the ideas as being part of Aum's internal belief system. One of the most extraordinary publications about ninjas, the famous warrior-spies of ancient Japan, traced the origins of martial arts and espionage to ancient China and linked supernatural abilities that ninjas were rumored to possess with religious spiritual practices, concluding that the "true ninjas" were interested in "preserving peace" in times of military conflict. Science fiction novels by Isaac Asimov "depicting as it does an elite group of spiritually evolved scientists forced to go underground during an age of barbarism so as to prepare themselves for the moment ... when they will emerge to rebuild civilization" were referenced as widely as basic Buddhist ideas to impress the shrewd and picky educated Japanese not attracted to boring purely traditional sermons. (Lifton, p258) Later the discussions about pre-requisites of Aum appeal factor resulted in some traditional Japanese Buddhist shrines adapting the Aum 'weekend meditation seminars' format. Necessity to 'modernize' also became the common refrain.

According to Asahara, to attract the modern audience he needed "to demonstrate charisma". Following his decision, at some point Aum underwent a radical image change. The rebranded Aum looked less like an elite meditation boutique and more like an organization attractive to a broader, larger population group. Thus public interviews, bold controversial statements and vicious opposition to critique were incorporated into PR style. In private, both Asahara and his top disciples continued their humble lifestyles, the only exception being the armored Mercedes gifted by a wealthy follower concerned over his Guru's traffic safety. In a rather rare footage, Asahara is seen on the street in front of a large clown doll resembling himself, happily smiling. He never ceased repeating that personal wealth or fame was of little importance to him, but he had to be known in order to attract more people. Intense advertising and recruitment activities, dubbed the 'Aum Salvation plan' included curing physical illnesses with yoga health improvement techniques, realizing the life goals by improving intelligence and positive thinking and concentrating on what was important at the expense of leisure and spiritual advancement by practicing the ancient teachings, accurately translated from original Pali sutras (these three were referred to as 'three-fold Salvation'). Extraordinary efforts resulted in Aum becoming the fastest-growing religion group in Japan's history.

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Sarin gas attacks and aftermaths

Main article: Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway

In 1995, following a Tokyo subway sarin gas attack in which 12 commuters died and thousands were injured, Shoko Asahara and a number of senior Aum Shinrikyo officials were arrested and accused of planning the attack. The trial, dubbed "the trial of the century" by the press, ruled Asahara guilty of masterminding the attack and sentenced him to death. The indictment is currently in the process of appeal at the High Court. A number of senior members accused of participation, such as Masami Tsuchiya, also received death sentences.

Following the police searches and arrests, a number of Aum followers were accused of other crimes, including several murders. The following people are believed to be murdered: two Aum Shinrikyo members, including follower Shuji Taguchi (reportedly for trying to leave the group), lawyer Tsutsumi Sakamoto and his family members (including his wife, Satoko and their one-year-old child, Tatsuhiko, reportedly in revenge for some public speech). For detailed information, see Sakamoto family murder.

The reasons why a small circle of mostly senior Aum members committed atrocities and extend personal involvement of Asahara remain unclear to this day, although several theories attempted to explain the events. Prosecutors charged that Asahara had obtained inside information on police activities, specifically plans to conduct coordinated searches of all the Aum facilities in Japan. The subway attack, by this theory, was an attempt to distract the police investigation, while in reality it resulted in extraordinary problems (initially police suggested the attack was a beginning of a failed attempt by Shoko Asahara to become a king of Japan). The defense maintained that Asahara was not aware of events, pointing to his deteriorating health condition. Shortly after his arrest, Asahara abandoned the post of organization's leader and since then maintains silence, refusing to communicate even to lawyers and family members. Many believe the trials failed to establish truth behind the events.

The group still continues to operate in Japan, but underwent a number of transformations. It has announced a change in its doctrine: religious texts related to controversial Vajrayana Buddhist doctrines that authorities claimed were "justifying murder" were removed. The group apologized to the victims of the sarin gas attack and established a special compensations fund. Provocative publications and activities that alarmed the society during Aum times are no longer in place and people living close to Aleph-related facilities are alarmed more by right-wingers demonstrating in close proximity and broadcasting their opinions from the loudspeaker-equipped minivans than Aleph members themselves. The transformation caused an internal debate among Aleph members, however.

Fumihiro Joyu, a charismatic senior leader of the group under Asahara, is currently the official head of the organization (since 1999). Previously the group was led by six senior executives (the so-called Chorobu) who transferred the decision-making power to Joyu. Democratic tendencies initiated by Joyu and changes aimed at softening social tensions didn't bring Aleph followers much immediate value, but caused internal disagreements among the followers.

According to the Public Security Investigation Agency, at present (as of December 2005) the group is split over a dispute over its future: a larger number of members, including senior members would like to keep the organization as close to pre-1995 structure as realistically possible. Joyu and his numerically larger faction advocate a milder course aimed at re-integration to society. Matters like whether Asahara's portraits should be retained or abandoned, remain the cornerstone of disagreements. The fundamentalist faction reportedly refuses to comply with Joyu's decisions and attempts to influence the sympathizers not to communicate to Joyu, who still remains the official leader of the group, at all.

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'Aum Surveillance Law': Under Pressure

In January 2000, the group was placed under surveillance for a period of three years. (Highlights of the bill)

In January 2003, Japan's Public Security Investigation Agency received permission to extend the surveillance for another three years. According to a Religious News Blog report issued in April 2004, the government still considers Aum "a threat to society."

In January 2006, the Public Security Investigation Agency was able to extend the surveillance for another three years. Despite the doctrinal changes and banning of Vajrayana texts, the PSIA periodically airs concerns that texts are still in place, Asahara still remains the leader and danger therefore remains, advocating increase of surveillance and increases in funding of the agency itself. Aleph leaders carefully insert passages attempting to prevent misinterpretation to almost everything they say or write, including (funny enough) karaoke songs.

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Overseas presence

Aum Shinrikyo has had several overseas branches: a Sri Lanka branch, small branches in New York City, United States and Bonn, Germany. The group also had several centers in Moscow, Russia.

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References in popular culture

Books, documentaries and fiction attempting to explain the Aum phenomena became best-sellers not only in Japan, but overseas as well. Below are characteristic examples:

  • Shogo Amakusa, leader of the renegade Christians in the Christian Arc of the anime Rurouni Kenshin, loosely resembles Shoko Asahara.
  • Agoraphobic Nosebleed have made several references to Aum Shinrikyo in their albums, most notably in Altered States of America where several tracks are dedicated to freeing Shoko Asahara.
  • 'A' and 'A2', documentary movies by filmmaker Tatsuya Mori that demonstrate day-to-day ordinary lives of Aleph members, reportedly caused disbelief with many of the Japanese attending the limited screenings: unwilling to believe what they were seeing, some even accused him in using professional actors to 'make everything up'.
  • Underground, a documentary book by popular author Haruki Murakami consisting mainly of interviews with underground sarin attack incidents, deliberately avoids definite answers. Murakami also apologizes to its Japanese readers who may 'misunderstand' him.
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Further reading

  • Shoko Asahara, Supreme Initiation: An Empirical Spiritual Science for the Supreme Truth, 1988, AUM USA Inc, ISBN 0-945638-00-0. Highlights the main stages of Yogic and Buddhist practice, comparing Yoga-sutra system by Patanjali and the Eightfold Noble Path from Buddhist tradition.
  • ---- Life and Death, (Shizuoka: Aum, 1993). Focuses on the process of Kundalini-Yoga, one of the stages in Aum's practice.
  • ---- Disaster Approaches the Land of the Rising Sun: Shoko Asahara's Apocalyptic Predictions, (Shizuoka: Aum, 1995). A controversial book, later removed by Aum leadership, speaks about possible destruction of Japan.
  • Ikuo Hayashi, Aum to Watakushi (Aum and I), Tokyo: Bungei Shunju, 1998. Book about personal experiences by former Aum member.
  • Robert Jay Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism, Henry Holt, ISBN 0-8050-6511-3, LoC BP605.088.L54 1999
  • Haruki Murakami, Underground: The Tokyo Gas Attack and the Japanese Psyche, Vintage, ISBN 0-37572580-6, LoC BP605.O88.M8613 2001 Interviews with victims.
  • Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: A Case Study on the Aum Shinrikyo, [USA] Senate Government Affairs Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, October 31, 1995. online
  • David E. Kaplan, and Andrew Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World: The Terrifying Story of the Aum Doomsday Cult, from the Subways of Tokyo to the Nuclear Arsenals of Russia, 1996, Random House, ISBN 0-517-70543-5. An account of the cult from its beginnings to the aftermaths of the Tokyo subway attack, including details of facilities, weapons and other information regarding Aum's followers, activities and property.
  • Ian Reader, Religious Violence in Contemporary Japan: The Case of Aum Shinrikyo, 2000, Curzon Press
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External links

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