China proper
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China proper refers to the historical heartlands of China in the context of that paradigm which contrasts these heartlands and frontier regions of Outer China (including sections of Inner Asia and other regions). Territories often considered to be outside "China proper" include Xinjiang, Tibet, Manchuria (Northeast) and Inner Mongolia. The conception implicit within the term is the historical development of the Chinese political entity from a distinct "Chinese" social entity and historically later additions of other territories not originally forming part of this "Chinese" entity.
"China proper" is a controversial concept. Within the People's Republic of China (PRC) it is generally accepted that territories such as Taiwan, Xinjiang, and Tibet are just as much a part of China as any other part of the country in every way. As a result, the concept of "China proper" is seen as obsolete and redundant, if not downright offensive, as it implies that some of China's territory is not as "proper", which can be used to justify separatism, a generally reviled idea. On the other hand, proponents of Taiwanese, Tibetan, Uyghur, or Inner Mongolian separatism would support such a distinction, as they want to make clear the difference between the concept of "China proper" and "China", merely a political entity. They go on to call China proper "China", and the regions for which they want to see independence the colonial acquisitions of China, not a part of China at all. However, the potential offensiveness of the term may be mitigated in the eyes of many if it is taken to mean, as it often is, the historical and cultural-anthropological center of the Chinese people, and not an intrinsically divisive political reference. Indeed, the historical evolution of China from a historical core to a later, larger, entity, is an indisputable fact.
Generally speaking, the idea of "China proper" is quite volatile from time to time and its definition often changes depends on the context. Territories that are incorporated or ceded can affect the contemporary interpretation of "China Proper". It should be noted in this light that the government of the Republic of China (on Taiwan) has never formally rescinded its claim that the territory now forming Mongolia, an independent nation, is rightfully a part of China.
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Origin of the Concept
It is not clear when the concept of "China Proper" was created. According to Harry Harding, it can date back to the year of 1827 (see Harding 1993). But as early as in 1795, William Winterbotham adopted this concept in his book (see Winterbotham, 1795). When describing the Chinese empire, Winterbotham divided it into three parts: China Proper, Chinese Tartary, and the States Tributary to China. He adopted the opinions of Du Halde and Grosier and suspected that the name of "China" came from Qin empire. He then said: "China, properly so called,... comprehends from north to south eighteen degrees; its extent from east to west being somewhat less..."
However, to introduce China proper, Winterbotham still used the outdated 15-province system, which had been specifically used between 1645 and 1662 in the early Qing Dynasty. Although Ming Dynasty also had 15 basic local divisions (Buzhengshi Si; Chinese: 布政使司; Pinyin: Bùzhèngshǐ Sī), Winterbotham uses the name of Kiang-nan (江南, Jiāngnán) province, which had been called Nan-Zhili (南直隶, Nán-Zhílì) in Ming Dynasty and was renamed to Kiang-nan (i.e., Jiangnan) in 1645, the second year after Manchu conquered China. This 15-province system was gradually replaced by the 18-province system between 1662 to 1667. Use of 15-province system and the name of Kiang-nan Province indicates that the concept of "China Proper" probably had appeared between 1645 and 1662.
Extent of "China" and "China proper"
The extent of "China proper" is generally accepted to be that of ancient Han Chinese dynasties. This, however, is a highly ambiguous definition, since different dynasties had very different borders, some extending deep into territory that would not be considered part of China proper (or even China), while others relinquished huge areas (including all of North China on several occasions) to non-Han Chinese neighbours. A convenient guideline for the bounds of "China proper" are the 18 provinces under the Manchu Qing Dynasty, which used a different administrative structure for each of the 5 regions it governed: Manchuria, China proper, Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet. This guideline, however, is rough at best, since the cultural, ethnic, and political reality of China is much more complicated than what 5 regions with distinct defined borders can explain or illustrate. Another source of ambiguity arises from changes in extent that the 18 provinces themselves went through: many border areas, such as Taiwan, eastern Kham, central Inner Mongolia, and frontier regions bordering Burma were part of the 18 provinces for only part of the Qing Dynasty, and / or their status was ambiguous at best for part or all of the period.
The general rough extent given for China proper is as follows: it is bounded north by Inner Mongolia, west by Tibet and Xinjiang, southwest by Burma, south by Tonkin (northern Vietnam) and the Gulf of Tonkin, southeast by the South China Sea, east by the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea, Bohai Sea and Manchuria. Its area is approximately 4,000,000 km².
Outer China was the homeland of many non-Han Chinese tribes, like the Xiongnu and other minority ethnic groups in Chinese history, some of which tried to invade China proper, but sometimes became partially or wholly Sinicized, such as the Manchus.
The term in Chinese
Image:China Proper.jpg There is no direct translation for the term China proper in the Chinese language. China proper no longer corresponds to ethnic, demographic, or administrative boundaries in China, and the concept is generally unfamiliar to contemporary Chinese; moreover, the concept of "China proper" may imply that China proper is "separate" from Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, or Tibet, or that areas outside of China proper are somehow less a part of China; many Chinese would find this idea offensive. Contemporary Chinese usually think in terms of modern political divisions of China, which do not correspond well to the boundaries of these historical regions.
To express the concept, one way is to refer to zhongguo benbu (中国本部) or zhongguo bentu (中国本土), the same construction used to distinguish countries like the United Kingdom and France from their colonial empires. However, this is immediately and deeply offensive to most mainland Chinese, and will likely be construed as an insult on the nation of China. A second way is to refer to "areas populated by Han Chinese", or hanzu qu (汉族区); but this circumlocution would include most of Manchuria, much of Inner Mongolia, and scattered parts of Xinjiang and Tibet, but would in turn exclude much of southwestern China that was traditionally part of China proper but is populated by various non-Han Chinese minority groups. Another possibility is zhongyuan (中原), which literally means "Central Realm". Ancient texts often describe successful foreign conquest of China proper (Mongols or Manchus for example), as annexation of 'zhongyuan' . However, in geographic usage, zhongyuan is a narrow term that usually refers to only the North China Plain, or, even more narrowly, the central parts of Henan province. One final possibility is the Eighteen Provinces (一十八行省 Pinyin: Yishiba Xingsheng, or 十八省 Shiba Sheng), which were the eighteen provinces under the Qing Dynasty that roughly corresponded to China proper. But the term "eighteen provinces" would be incomprehensible to a contemporary Chinese, because the People's Republic of China now administers 33 province-level divisions (of which 22 are provinces).
The 18 provinces were:
- Zhili (now Hebei): capital-province
- Henan
- Shandong
- Shanxi
- Shaanxi
- Gansu
- Hubei
- Hunan
- Guangdong
- Guangxi
- Sichuan
- Yunnan
- Guizhou
- Jiangsu
- Jiangxi
- Zhejiang
- Fujian
- Anhui
These provinces still exist today, but their boundaries have changed. Beijing and Tianjin were eventually split from Hebei, Shanghai from Jiangsu, Chongqing from Sichuan, and Hainan from Guangdong. Guangxi is now an autonomous region.
Taiwan
Since both China proper and Taiwan are controversial topics, the question of whether Taiwan is included within "China proper" is thorny as well.
In general, people who support independence for Taiwan, whether Taiwanese or outside observers, would argue that Taiwan is not a part of China at all, let alone China proper, from historical, cultural, or other grounds. Such a point of view often bears a strong affinity with sympathy to other independence movements such as those in Tibet and Xinjiang, and would promote receptivity to the concept of "China proper" as an entity separate and different from "China."
Note, however, that the exclusion of Taiwan from China proper is on a different basis to the exclusion of Tibet, xinjiang, and Manchuria. The claim of exclusion for Taiwan is based on modern political history - the different regimes ruling mainland China and Taiwan since 1949. By contrast, the exclusion of Tibet, Xinjiang, and Manchuria is based on ethnicity, culture, and geography.
On the other hand, a stance not supporting independence for Taiwan, and in favour of a unified China, are more likely to consider Taiwan a part of China in every respect. In fact, this perspective would lead those who hold it to deny the very viability of "China proper" as a concept, since they are likely to equate "China proper" with "China", and consider every part of China, Han Chinese or otherwise, to be equally integral and indivisible.
See Political status of Taiwan for more on the dispute over Taiwan's status.
See also
References
- Du Halde (1736). The General History of China. Containing a geographical, historical, chronological, political and physical description of the empire of China, Chinese-Tartary, Corea and Thibet..., London: J. Watts.
- Grosier (1788). A General Description of China. Containing the topography of the fifteen provinces which compose this vast empire, that of Tartary, the isles, and other tributary countries..., London: G.G.J. and J. Robinson.
- Winterbotham, William (1795). An Historical, Geographical, and Philosophical View of the Chinese Empire..., London: Printed for, and sold by the editor; J. Ridgway; and W. Button. (pp.35-37: General Description of the Chinese Empire → China Proper→ 1. Orgin of its Name, 2. Extent, Boundaries, &c.)
- Darby, William (1827). Darby's Universal Gazetteer, or, A New Geographical Dictionary. ... Illustrated by a ... Map of the United States (p.154),. Philadelphia: Bennett and Walton.
- Harding, Harry (1993). "The Concept of 'Greater China': Themes, Variations, and Reservations", in The China Quarterly, 1993, pp.660-686.