Mahabharata
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Template:Hindu scriptures The Mahabharata (Devanagari: महाभारत, phonetically Mahābhārata - see note), sometimes just called Bharata, is one of the two major ancient Sanskrit epics of India, the other being the Ramayana. Traditionally ascribed to Vyasa, it is the longest literary epic poem in the world. Besides being hailed as one of the greatest literary accomplishments of humanity, it is also of immense religious and philosophical importance in India. In particular, the Bhagavad Gita, which is one of its chapters (Bhishmaparva), is a central sacred text of Hinduism.
The title may be translated as "History of the Great India" or, more accurately, "the Great Bharata Dynasty" (bhārata means the progeny of Bharata, the king believed to have founded the Indian kingdom of Bhāratavarsha; "Bharat" has equal status as the official name of India in all Indian governments today and is still commonly used today). The work is part of the Hindu itihaasas, literally "that which happened", along with the Puranas and Ramayana. The full version contains more than 100,000 verses (total over 200,000), and around 2.5 million words long.
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Scope
With its vast philosophical depth and sheer magnitude, a consummate embodiment of the ethos of not only India but of Hinduism and Vedic tradition, the Mahabharata's scope and grandeur is best summarized by one quotation from the beginning of its first parva (section): "What is found here, may be found elsewhere. What is not found here, will not be found elsewhere."
In its scope, the Mahabharata is more than simply a story of kings and princes, sages and wisemen, demons and gods; its author, Vyasa, says that one of its aims is elucidating the four goals of life: kama (pleasure), artha (wealth), dharma (duty) and moksha (liberation). The story culminates in moksha, believed by many Hindus to be the ultimate goal of human beings. Karma and dharma play an integral role in the Mahabharata.
Background and history
Image:Mahabharata BharatVarsh.jpg
For more details on the geographical locations of the kingdoms of Ancient India, see Kingdoms of Ancient India
The epic is composed by Vyasa, who is one of the major dynastic characters within the epic. The first section of the Mahabharata states that it was Lord Ganesh (the Hindu god bearing the head of an elephant) who, at the behest of Vyasa, wrote the epic down on manuscript. Lord Ganesh is said to have agreed, but only on condition that Vyasa never pause in his recitation. Vyasa then put a counter-condition that Ganesh understand whatever he recited, before writing it down. In this way Vyasa could get some respite from continuously speaking by saying a verse which was difficult to understand. This situation also serves as a popular variation on the stories of how Ganesh's right tusk was broken (a traditional part of Ganesh imagery). This version attributes it to the fact that, in the rush of writing, the great elephant-headed divinity's pen failed, and he snapped off his tusk as a replacement in order that the transcription not be interrupted.
The Mahabharata is thought to have been derived from what was originally a much shorter work, called Jaya (Sanskrit for Victory). The dating of the events of this story is unclear. Some people find the events to be reliably placed in Vedic India (see Kuru). Scholars have studied the astronomical events described in the Mahabharata (such as eclipses) and have claimed to have dated it to around 1478 BCE or alternatively 3106 BCE. Many scholars are of the opinion that the events dated back to the Indus valley civilisation. The cities, the governments mentioned and the final destruction of life and property as well can be attributed to the great Mahabharata war. Also recent Harappan seals in Dwaraka (Krishna's city) corroborate the fact. Linguistically, the language of the Mahabharata is classified as "Epic" Sanskrit, the oldest stratum post-dating late Vedic Sanskrit, dating to perhaps the 5th century BCE. Some other estimates place it between 200 BCE and 200 CE. Recent studies have posted 16th October, 5561 B.C.E as the actual date of the Mahabharata War (The Scientific Dating of the Mahabharat War by Dr.P.V.Vartak).However, it is significant to realize that the debate about dating the 'events' of the Mahabharata is secondary to the importance of the text in Classical Sanskrit literature and culture.
Like much of other early Indian literature, it was often transmitted orally through the generations. However, unlike European folklore, the oral tradition was extremely strict, requiring a perfect memorization of every word within the text. Variations cannot be ascribed to unintentional mistakes, but rather to intentional changes and additions. However, the variation has in most cases been in the new additions, and not in the original story.
The central story
Template:Main Image:Mahabharata2.jpg The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of Hastinapura, the kingdom ruled by the Kuru clan. The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are the Kauravas, the elder branch of the family, and the Pandavas, the younger branch.
The struggle culminates leading to the Great battle of Kurukshetra, and the Pandavas are ultimately victorious. The Mahabharata itself ends with the death of Krishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty, and ascent of the Pandava brothers to Heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of Kali (Kali Yuga), the fourth and final age of mankind, where the great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and man is speedily heading toward the complete dissolution of right action, morality and virtue. Some of the most noble and revered figures in the Mahabharat end up fighting on the side of the Kauravas, due to allegiances formed prior to the conflict.
The epic employs the 'tale-within-tale' structure popular in many Indian religious and secular works. It is recited to the King Janamejaya by Vaishampayana, a disciple of Vyasa. Janamejaya's ancestor Shantanu, the king of Hastinapur has a short-lived marriage with the goddess Ganga and has a heroic son, Bhishma. Many years later, when the king goes hunting, he spots Satyavati, the daughter of fisherman and wants to marry her. The fisherman says that he will agree only on one condition - that her son should ascend the throne of Hastinapur. Bhishma, his son by his first wife, renounces his right to the throne and and vows to be a lifelong celibate, so that Satyavati's son can be the king. Such a vow was unheard of amongst warrior dynasties thus inspiring the name Bhishma.
Unfortunately Satyavati's sons die young and her grandson Pandu ascends the throne as his elder brother Dhritarashtra is blind. But this king is cursed to be childless and he retires to the forest. Using a magical spell to summon the gods, his elder queen Kunti gives birth to three sons Yudhishthira, Arjuna and Bhima. His younger queen has the twins Nakula and Sahadeva. Pandu and his younger wife die in the forest and Kunti returns to Hastinapura with her sons. The rivalry between the Pandavas and the Kauravas start from childhood itself. Dhritarashtra’s sons, the Kauravas, lead by the eldest Duryodhana, detest their cousins. However, they were the favorite of their teacher Drona and (the Pandavas) grow up to be exceptional. Each one of the Pandavas is said to have one exceptional strength or virtue - Yudhishthira is the wisest and most virtuous, Arjuna the bravest warrior, Bhima the strongest and the twins Nakula and Sahadev are endowed with exceptional beauty.
When the princes come of age, a tournament is held to display the strength and specialities of the princes of Hastinapur. When Arjuna was hailed as a master of archery, a young man challenges him for a duel. He declares his name is Karna, and he was the son of the charioteer. When asked to prove that his birth is of royal birth, which is the criterion for joining the tournament, Duryodhana, spotting a potential ally, jumps over to his side and gives his kingdom of Angawardana. Karna is forever grateful for this act. Because of this, he becomes Duryodhana's closest friend and plays a crucial role in the upcoming war.
Meanwhile Duryodhana plots to get rid of the Pandavas and tries to kill the Pandavas secretly by burning their palace which is made of lac. However, The Pandavas are warned and escape from the palace. They live in hiding for sometime. In course of this exile Arjuna wins the hand of the Panchala princess Draupadi. When he returns with her, Kunti not noticing the princess, imagines that he is back with some food and asks him to share it with his brothers. To ensure that their mother never utters a falsehood even by mistake, the brothers take her as a common wife. At this juncture they also meet Krishna, who would become their lifelong ally and guide.
Duryodhana who now has a friend in the peerless warrior Karna, resigns to the coming back of the Pandavas with their new royal ally. Soon they conquer the whole of India and its adjoining regions and Yudhishthira is crowned the emperor. This proves too much for Duryodhana who feels death would be better than watching one's foes prosper. His maternal uncle Shakuni, convinced that however brave his nephew may be, he was no match for his cousins, decides to use a ruse to destroy the Pandavas. He forces Dhritarashtra to invite the Pandavas for a game of dice in which he wins everything from Yudhishthira, including himself, his brothers and Draupadi through the use of a trick. The jubilant Kauravas insult them in their helpless state and even try to strip Draupadi. Her honour is saved by the grace of Krishna. When the elders intervene and Dhritarashtra has to restore everything to the Pandavas, Shakuni forces another game of dice which he again wins. The losers are required to go into exile for 13 years.
When the Pandavas after many hardships and exile request for at least a few villages from their vast kingdom, Duryodhana refuses to give in. Krishna goes to broker peace but fails. War was inevitable. The two sides summon vast armies to their help and line up at Kurukshetra for a war. Seeing himself facing grandsire Bhishma and his teacher Drona on Duryodhana's side due to their vow to serve the state of Hastinapur, Arjuna is heartbroken at the idea of killing them. Krishna who has chosen to drive Arjuna's chariot wakes him up to his call of duty in the famous Bhagavad Gita section of the epic. Though initially sticking to chivalrous notions of warfare, the Kauravas soon start descending to butchery and the Pandavas to tricks. At the end of the 18 days slaughter only the Pandavas and Krishna survive with a few old warriors from the Kaurava side.
Beholding the carnage, the noble mother of Kauravas, Gandhari who had lost all her sons, curses Krishna to be a witness to a similar annihilation of his family, for though divine and capable of stopping the war, he had not done so. Krishna who had incarnated precisely to destroy the wicked kings accepts the curse and 36 years later sees it fructify. He then departs from the world and the Pandavas who had ruled righteously all along, now tired, decide to renounce everything. Clad in skins and rags they retire to the Himalayas and ascend the peaks. One by one they get exhausted, die and ascend to heaven. Only the virtuous Yudhisthira who had tried everything to prevent the carnage and never very happy with his kingship afterwards, ascends to the heaven in his physical body.
Arjuna's grandson Parikishit rules after them and dies bitten by a snake. His furious son, Janamejaya, decides to perform a sacrifice in which to kill all the snakes. It is at this sacrifice that the tale of his ancestors is narrated to him. (Incidentally, the sacrifice has to be stopped after sometime and the snakes are not annihilated.)
The books
The Mahabharata is written in eighteen parvas (chapters or books) which are:
- Adi-parva - Introduction, birth and upbringing of the princes. (Adi = first).
- Sabha-parva - Life at the court, the game of dice, and the exile of the Pandavas. Maya Danava erects the palace and court (sabha), at Indraprastha.
- Aranyaka-parva (also Vanaparva, Aranyaparva) - The twelve years in exile in the forest (aranya).
- Virata-parva - The year in exile spent at the court of Virata.
- Udyoga-parva - Preparations for war.
- Bhishma-parva - The first part of the great battle, with Bhishma as commander for the Kauravas.
- Drona-parva - The battle continues, with Drona as commander.
- Karna-parva - The battle again, with Karna as commander.
- Shalya-parva - The last part of the battle, with Shalya as commander.
- Sauptika-parva - How Ashvattama and the remaining Kauravas killed the Pandava army in their sleep (Sauptika).
- Stri-parva - Gandhari and the other women lament the dead (stri = woman).
- Shanti-parva - The crowning of Yudhisthira, and his instructions from Bhishma (shanti = peace).
- Anushasana-parva - The final instructions of Bhishma (anushasana = instruction).
- Ashvamedhika-parva - The royal ceremony or ashvamedha conducted by Yudhisthira.
- Ashramavasika-parva - Dhritarashtra, Gandhari and Kunti leave for an ashram, and eventual death in the forest.
- Mausala-parva - The infighting between the Yadavas with maces (mausala).
- Mahaprasthanika-parva - The first part of the path to death of Yudhisthira and his brothers (mahaprasthana, the great journey = death).
- Svargarohana-parva - The Pandavas return to the spiritual world (svarga = heaven).
There also exists an appendix of 16,375 verses, the Harivamsaparva, which focuses specifically on the life of Lord Krishna.
It also includes large amounts of Hindu mythology, cosmological stories of the gods and goddesses, and philosophical parables aimed at students of Hindu philosophy. Among the principal works and stories that are a part of the Mahabharata are the following. They are often isolated and presented as works complete in and of themselves.
- Bhagavad Gita (Krishna instructs and teaches Arjuna. Bhishmaparva.)
- Damayanti (or Nala and Damayanti, a love story. Aranyakaparva.)
- Krishnavatara (the story of Krishna, the Krishna Leela, which is woven through many chapters of the story)
- Rama (an abbreviated version of the Ramayana. Aranyakaparva.)
- Rishyasringa (also written as Rshyashrnga, the horned boy and rishi. Aranyakaparva.)
- Vishnu sahasranama (the most famous hymn to Vishnu, which describes His 1000 names; Anushasanaparva.)
Jaimini's version
There exists another narration of the epic tale in Sanskrit called Jaimini-Bharata. This consists of only the 14th book - Ashvamedhika-parva and hence also called Jaiminiya-ashwamedha. Instead of Vaishamapayana this is narrated by Jaimini, another disciple of Vyasa, to Janamejaya. It is not known what happened to the other books and most historians consider this a later work that attained its present form by 12th century CE as it has far more devotional material( related to Krishna) than the standard epic. It has some regional versions, the most popular being the Kannada one by Devapurada Annama Lakshmisha(16th century CE).
In modern times
Between 1919 and 1966, the scholars at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, compared the various manuscripts of the epic from India and abroad and produced a Critical Edition of the Mahabharata. This is the text that is usually used in current Mahabharata studies for reference.
In the late 1980s, the Mahabharata (IMDb entry) was televised and shown on India's national TV (Doordarshan). Directed by B. R. Chopra and his son Ravi Chopra, it was immensely popular, so much so that streets were deserted when it was telecast and even Cabinet meetings were re-scheduled so that Ministers could watch it. It was also shown in the UK by the BBC. The Mahabharata is arguably familiar to the vast majority of Hindus living in the Indian subcontinent, if not abroad. The most acclaimed and well known presentation of the epic to Western audiences is Peter Brook’s nine hour play premiered in Avignon in 1985 and its five hour movie version (1989), which was shown on other TV networks, including PBS (through the "Great Performances" show) and Danmarks Radio (credited in the movie's credits). However, there have been film versions of the Mahabharata long before these two film versions. The earliest film version was shown in 1920 and there will be a film version released in 2007.
See also
External links
Original text online Template:Sa icon
- [1] (transliterated) at Goettingen State and University Library
- [2] (parallel in Devanāgarī and transliterated) at The Internet Sacred Text Archive
- in Devanāgarī and transliterated:
- http://www.hindunet.org/mahabharata/ (Warning: this site has malicious popups)
- http://bombay.oriental.cam.ac.uk/john/mahabharata/statement.html (requires free registration and license agreement)
Complete translations online Template:En icon
- Full text of the Kisari Mohan Ganguly translation of the Mahabharata at sacred-texts.com The most complete English translation in the public domain
Synopses, excerpts etc. Template:En icon
In other languages
Articles on Mahabharata
- Mahabharata and Sindhu- Sarasvathi tradition, a paper by Subhash kak (pdf)
- More information on Shahrukh Khan's new movie
- The Date Of The Mahabharata War
- Vivekananda on the Mahabharata
Movies
Other resources
- Clay Sanskrit Library publishes classical Indian literature, including the Mahabharata and Ramayana, with facing-page text and translation. Also offers searchable corpus and downloadable materials.
- Mahabharata Resources Page Resources on Mahabharata
- Google Directory: Mahabharata
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