Mongols

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Template:Ethnic group }}The Mongols are an ethnic group that originated in what is now Mongolia, Russia, and China, particularly Inner Mongolia. They currently number about 8.5 million and speak the Mongol language. There are approximately 2.7 million Mongols in Mongolia, 5 million Mongols living in Inner Mongolia, and 1 million Mongols live in Russia. In addition, there are a number of ethnic groups in North China and Russia related to the Mongols: the Daurs, Buryats, Evenks, Dorbots, Kalmyks and Huns.Template:Fact

1 History
2 Mongol military methods and innovation
3 Timeline of conquest
4 Modern history
5 See also
6 References
7 External links

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History

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Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan was originally called Temujin. He led his clan to unify the others into a literal military juggernaut that swept across the Asian continent and reached the fringes of Europe and the Holy Roman Empire.

The Mongols were originally a confederation of tribes in competition with the Tatar Turks, Kerait, Merkit and Naiman confederations and therefore only one division of what is known today as the Mongol nation. Genghis Khan unified the Mongol people by absorbing the other confederations into his own and the word Mongol came to mean the entire people.

Though few in number (approximately 200,000 people at the height of their empire), Mongols were important in Eurasian history. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, the Mongols created the second largest empire in world history, ruling 35 million km² (13.8 million miles²) and more than 100 million people, nearly equal to the British Empire in land area. At its height, the Mongol Empire spanned from Manchuria to Hungary, and included most of the lands in between, such as Afghanistan, Turkey, Uzbekistan, Georgia, Armenia, Russia, Persia, Northern India, China, and much of the Middle East.

The Mongols were a group of nomadic people who in the 13th century found themselves encompassed by large, city-dwelling agrarian civilizations. However, none of these civilizations, with the possible exception of the Islamic Caliphate located in Baghdad, were part of a strong central state. Asia, Russia, and the Middle East were either declining kingdoms, or divided city states. Taking the strategic initiative, the Mongols exploited this power vacuum and linked all of these areas into a mutually supportive trade network.

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Mongol Empire

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The Mongols were nomadic people who raise animals by pasturing and produce everything they need from animals. The unification of the Mongol tribes by Genghis Khan strengthened the country. In the Mongol culture of the time people became respected political leaders by, among other things, demonstrating their martial virtues in combat. This was more often than not done by raiding and fighting other Mongol tribes. The booty of such raids was then distributed by the leaders in order to consolidate their political position. This is clearly attested by Genghis Khan's own personal history: Before he became the Great Khan, his own wife was kidnapped in a raid by another tribe, and he had to organize a counter-attack to rescue her. Once he had unified the Mongols, however, he naturally had to forbid (or at least drastically curb) these raids that contributed to the poverty and instability of the Mongol people. But no more raids meant no more prizes to distribute. Consequently Genghis Khan had to turn outward for military targets in order to consolidate and maintain his own political position.

Conquest, in the Khan's initial viewpoint, did not consist of subordination of competing cultures to the nomadic way of life. Rather, if there was resistance, it took the form of looting and destruction. If there was no resistance, Mongols usually left the town unharmed and demanded that the townspeople pay them tribute. As a nomad, Genghis Khan is supposed to not have understood or cared about the supposed benefits of the city dwellers' way of life. This contrasts with their dependence on trade with the cities. However, theories on the economics of these relationships still lay seven centuries in the future. Image:Mongol dominions1.jpg The Khan's initial plan of conquest if there was resistance was to sack all that was valuable, and then raze the city killing the resisters and leaving only artists and human shields (for future campaigns) to survive. Genghis Khan himself was extremely supportive to people that were loyal to him, even his former enemies. Different theories exist as to why the Mongols initially behaved in such an extreme manner. From a military perspective, the Mongols were often far from home territory and greatly out-numbered, and therefore it was unwise to leave enemies at their rear. Terror also served as a useful weapon in reducing an opponent's ability to rally support against Mongol invasion. Economically, destroying population centers gave the Mongols more room to graze their herds.

One such example is the capture of Zhongdu (中都 Zhōngdú) (roughly on the site of modern Beijing) in 1215. Rather than adding the city to the Mongol Kingdom, it was instead thoroughly sacked for silk and other valuables.

As the Mongols grew more powerful, advisers convinced Genghis Khan to start building a vassal empire. If the city-dwelling peoples were allowed to continue their way of life, they could produce a surplus of food and goods, a portion of which could be paid to the Khan as taxes. Given the Khan's extraordinary success in his aggressive foreign policy, this wealth could be equally extraordinary. The Khan agreed, taking his tribute in tax of 10%, and saving countless lives and cultures in the process. Until 1225 they continued their invasions through Western Asia, into Persia and Russia.

In 1227, Genghis Khan died; his third son Ogedei Khan was elected by the tribes to succeed him. Ogedei Khan continued the expansion into North-Eastern Asia, conquering Northern China and vassalizing Korea in the process. The armies of the Mongols had reached Poland, Hungary, and Egypt by 1241, and were poised to continue. When Ogedei Khan suddenly died, Mongol law required all descendants of Genghis to return to elect a new Khan. The leader of the European expedition rushed back to press his claim. Nearly a decade later, Mongka Khan, grandson of Genghis and nephew of Ogedei, took the throne, through the assistance of his mother Sorghaghtani Beki. By this time, the Western expansion had lost its momentum.

These events are credited in several counterfactual historical scenarios with saving European civilization from a second "Dark Age" precipitated by Mongol conquest. Evidence given in support of such theories usually include the swift and crushing early victories of the Mongol campaign in Poland and Hungary, and the disunified state of the other European powers. Such scenarios, however carefully constructed, must always be viewed keeping in mind their nature as mere speculation.

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Ethnic, cultural and religious diversity

The term Mongol referring to the 12th and 13th century Mongol reign presumably included soldiers and generals in the Middle East, China, Eastern and central Europe who all fought under the identity of being Mongols although not exclusively having a heritage in modern Mongolia. The name probably was very symbolic and powerful concept to those that pledged allegiance to the Mongol Empire, to Genghis Khan and his successor Great Khans, and to themselves. It was probably the genius of Genghis Khan to unify all these different people under one identity as a single and powerful fighting force with superb military strategy, dedication and mobility. The word Mongol should not be interpreted literally in historical perspective to many of those who identified themselves as being Mongols.

Various members of the Mongol Court, including Sorghaghtani Beki, were Nestorian Christians. While the court was nominally Buddhist and maintained a policy of being open to all religions, it was known as particularly sympathetic to Christians (which may have helped contribute to the legend of Prester John). In 1253 the court followed the suggestion of Crusader Kingdoms in Syria to attack the Muslim capitals of Baghdad and Cairo. Baghdad was conquered and sacked in 1258 with the city's Christians spared, and the Abbasid caliph killed. However, with the troops on the road to Cairo, Mongka Khan died in 1259 and much of the force returned home for the selection of the new leader. Egyptian troops finally repelled the attack in 1260. This, and ultimately the "gates of Vienna," marked the farthest West the Mongol Empire would progress.

Kublai Khan quickly succeeded Mongka Khan, moved the court to Beijing, formed the Yuan dynasty, and re-started the invasion of China, in the first war with guns on both sides. After 18 years, Kublai Khan conquered both Northern and Southern China, forming the largest (land) empire in history (famously described by Marco Polo).

However, by the early 14th century, the prominence of trade and a possible cooling of the world's climates led to worldwide outbreaks of plague, which encouraged revolt and invasion. Early Ming Emperors led campaigns into Mongolia and destroyed Harhorin and Khar Khot, but later Ming Emperors resorted to more defensive policies. Meanwhile, various Mongolian tribes fought against each other, usually Western Mongols (Oirats) against Eastern Mongols (Chakhars, Tumeds, Ordoses, or Khalkhas), and continued to threaten China's borders.

The internal struggle gave the emerging Manchus the possibility of assimilating the Mongol tribes bit by bit. In 1636, the Chakhars of Inner Mongolia were conquered, in 1691, the Khalkhas of Outer Mongolia submitted to the Kangxi Emperor in order to escape from the threat of being conquered by the Oirat, and in the 1750s, the Qianlong Emperor completely destroyed the Oirat Dzungar Empire in today's Xinjiang.

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Mongol military methods and innovation

For a more detailed analysis see Military advances of Genghis Khan

Scope of Mongol operations

The Mongols were one of the most feared forces ever to take the field of battle. Operating in massive sweeps, extending over dozens of miles, the fierce horsemen combined a shock, mobility and firepower unmatched in land warfare until the gunpowder age. Other peoples such as the Romans had stonger infantry, and others like the Byzantines deployed more heavily armored cavalry. Still others were experts in fortification, but none combined combat power on land with such devasting range, speed, scope and effectiveness as the Mongols.

The Mongols also deployed technical expertise, using siege experts, sappers and mass labor to help destroy fortified strongpoints. From their small niche on the Mongolian steppe, the Mongol warriors defeated some of the world's most powerful, well established and sophisticated empires, and claiming over one-twelfth of the world's land surface at their height, seen by some as the largest contiguous empire in human history -- stretching from Asia, to Europe to the Middle East.

Weapons and equipment of the Mongols: the Mongols deployed three general weapons, bows, scimitars and lances. Of these the most important was the dreaded Mongol Bow. Some scholars (See Encyc Britannica -- Warfare, Conduct of) show two types of bows, one for long range markmanship and the other for shorter range work. Arrows were of different "calibers" for tactical purposes, ranging from warheads capable of penetrating heavy armor, to an assortment of longer range, more specialized heads like "fire" arrows. Like many Asiatic bows, the Mongol bow was a composite bow, made from glue, horn, sinew, wood and bamboo. Lances and scimitars were used for close range encounters within cities, or against dispersed enemies in the field. The central weapon however was the bow, with a range of over 200 yards.

Morale and makeup of the Mongol warrior and their mounts: The Mongol was an exceedingly tough warrior. Reared on the harsh steppes of their native land, they were generally a short people, spending hours on horseback from childhood. They were used to privation and hardship, and were extremely dedicated. The Mongol was always seemingly identified with his horse -- the equally tough, hardy steppe pony. They were inseparable, not only providing the means of transport into battle, but very important to the Mongol steppe economy, providing milk, blood, and meat for food, hair and skin for clothing and tents, and glue and sinews for bow and arrow making. On the march, the Mongol warrior carried a string of ponies, rotating them as remounts to keep up the momentum of the advance. In a tight spot the Mongol would bleed selected ponies, using their blood to aussage his hunger. This extremely lean way of operation contributed to the rapidity of Mongol maneuvers. Characteristically, the Mongol was practical about his mounts, and would discard or slaughter them as demanded by the situation without sentiment.

Organization and tactics and of the Mongols:

Numerous accounts of the Mongols typically call them a "horde" as if they were merely a mob of savage, milling horsemen. Nothing could be further from the truth.

The touman decimal system and leadership- In reality they were tightly organized troops, parceled into units of ten, and from that basic building block, grouped into larger formations roughly corresponding to regiments and other units, finally culminating in the distinct field force of 10,000 horsemen, the famous Mongol touman. Several of these divisional equivalents were grouped or subdivided as the situation demanded. Coordination was provided by designated unit leaders, with signalling provided via horns, smokes, flags etc. Whatever the exact mix or sub-division deployed, it usually spelled bad news for their opponents.

Swarm/encirclement tactics and massed firepower in the field - Mongol tactics were marked by speed, surprise and massive mobility. They approached in widely separated columns, both to ease logistics as well as to gain maneuvering room. Once they had isolated their target, the toumans deployed in wide sweeps, convering on the enemy from several directions. Upon contact the Mongols played cat and mouse, standing-off while devastating opponents with massed arrow fire, or charging in close only to veer off while discharging yet another vicious rain of shafts. Opponents who took the bait and gave pursuit were quickly cut off and liquidated. The constant rain of arrows, the converging swarms of charges and probes, all carried out by the encircling Mongols were usually enough to "soften up" an enemy. Typically the opposing force broke and then the deadliest butchery began. As is well known, a force is most vulnerable in retreat, and the Mongols were ruthless.

Flexible tactics -- ruses and ambushes- The Mongols were not rigid in their thinking, nor did they adhere to European notions of "chivalry". They deployed a wide variety of large or small tactical subdivisions as the action demanded, and feigned retreat to set traps for pursuers, conducted ambushes, and constantly probed and raided their enemies. Unsentimental in their approach to warfare, they did whatever it took to win.

Mongol siege warfare and Logistics - The Mongol logistical system was distinguished by its mobility and practicality. Most columns or toumen were self-suficient in the short run. The Mongol armies lived off the land heavily, bad news indeed for hapless civilians in their path. Heavier equipment was brought up by well-organized supply trains. Local lumber, labor and other resources were pressed into service to feed the needs of the advancing toumen.

Primarily a cavalry force, the Mongols made wide use of captured or hired siege engineers to overcome fortifications. A supply train hauled a variety of siege engines in the wake of the touman sweep, and these were deployed against cities. The Mongols were unsentimental and used every trick in the book, from sapper tunnels to treachery. Once a city had fallen, it was subjected to wholesale massacre and pillaging. Cities that surrendered had an easier time, but regardless of how the city or area submitted, certain outcomes were still the same. The Mongol era is filled with supply trains hauling booty to their core homeland in the steppes.

Mongol terror - Mongol terror and atrocity was notable even for the 13th century. They employed a deliberate policy of terror. It was not unusual for them to round up the civilian population of a city or area, and drive the hapless victims forward as human herd against an opponent, who faced the anguished choice of firing upon or killing their own people, Contemporary accounts speak of mass mountains of human bones, or of vast areas burned to rubble, devoid of all life. Long before Imperial Japan used the phrase, Mongol operations in many areas could indeed be classified as a "Three All" policy- "burn all, kill all, destroy all." And yet such terror at times also had a rational end in sight -- to intimidate opponents further down the line into surrendering or making concessions. In a cruel age, where few nations or tribes won prizes for humane behavior, the Mongols seemed to have added their own distinct stamp.

Defeat of the Mongols Undefeated in most encounters, Mongols operations under Genghis Khan and his later successors stretched from Asia, to Central Europe, to Russia, to India to the Middle East. What then stopped the Asiatic horsemen from conquering the land surface of the earth?

The tribal structure for one was a relative fragile one, held together initially by Genghis Khan's ruthless will. On his death, the empire became divided. Such division arguably saved the people of Europe, for Mongol victories penetrated as far as Poland and Hungary could have gone much further. Succession disputes and deliberations however caused the fierce horsemen to withdraw from Central Europe. Russia received no such reprieve, nor did China, nor parts of the Middle East, but they met their fates separately under varying circumstances.

Over time, some conquered peoples were able to dilute, absorb or blunt Mongol advances. China is the most famous example, with the powerful Chinese culture eventually absorbing and "turning" the rough horsemen. Another factor was that success bred division, so that in time, like the Vikings, Mongol came to fight Mongol over the spoils of victory.

The Mongols also were never really tested for an extended time on terrain unsuitable to mass cavalry sweeps, nor were they noted for exploits in the naval arena. These twin factors would have been hindrances in further expansion, although as noted above, they were supremely adaptable. They conquered Afghanistan's main routes and cities with ease but the bulk of the country with its forbidding terrain, bane of invaders everywhere, was not pacified. The Mongols also met defeat in Japan, failing to project their power over a large body of water, and maintain a foothold on a hostile shore. Whether they would have had the same world-beating success if they had pushed into the forests and swamps beyond Poland or Hungary is open to question.

Mongol manpower also was not unlimited. The steppe economy was supremely proficient in producing tough archers and their ponies. But the farther away they moved from that area, the greater the drain on their manpower. Although shrewd and adaptable, such manpower problems would loom large in any putative program of world conquest. Finally the shrinkage of the steppes by the encroachment of agricultural peoples helped reduce the economic base that had produced so many ponies and fighting men. The final straw was the gunpowder age, which put paid to the run of success enjoyed by the mounted warrior, not only in Asia but elsewhere as well.

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Timeline of conquest

The Mongols attempted two unsuccessful invasions of Japan (see Mongol invasions of Japan). The first attempt ended in a retreat after the Battle of Bun'ei in 1274. The second attempt was cancelled after many ships had been destroyed by a famous typhoon, called kamikaze (divine wind) in 1281.

The Mongols succeeded very briefly in their invasion of Dai Viet in the northern part of contemporary Vietnam, but were soon defeated by the Vietnamese general Tran Hung Dao after almost three decades. The attack on the Javanese kingdom of Singhasari in 1293 caused the collapse of that state, but the new empire of Majapahit remained independent.

Estimated fatalities from the Mongol campaigns are:

1200, Northern China — unknown
1215, Yanjing China (present-day Beijing) — unknown
1221, Nishapur, Persia — ~1.7 million killed in assault
1221, Merv, Persia — ~1.4 million killed in assault
1221, Meru Chahjan, Persia — ~1.3 million killed in assault
1221, Rayy, Persia — ~1.6 million killed in assault
1236, Bilär, Bulgar cities, Volga Bulgaria — 150,000 or more, nearly half of population
1237-1240, Kievan Rus' — half of population
1241, Battle of Legnica — defeat of a combined Polish-German force in Lower Silesia (Poland)
1241, Batu Khan defeats Bela IV of Hungary at the Battle of Muhi ~ 500,000 people
1242 the Mongols turn back to attend to the election of a new Grand Khan.
1258, Baghdad — ~800,000 people. Results in destruction of Abbasid dynasty

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Modern history

Image:Mongols-map.png In 1911, Mongolia revolted against Manchu rule with Russian support, forming modern Mongolia. A Communist government was formed in 1921. The USSR defended Mongolia from Japanese invasion. However, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party, for reasons both practical and philosophical, enacted an often brutal if not entirely effective sweeping aside Mongolian tradition, working against the Buddhist religions, clan-ism, and script, and for collectivism (as opposed to the traditional nomadic lifestyle). Mongolia aligned itself with Russia after the Sino-Soviet split of 1958. In 1990 the Communist government was overthrown, and by 1992 Mongolia established a parliamentary government.

Inner Mongolia is an autonomous region within China. Han Chinese have been massively re-settled there, and are the dominant ethnic group. China places many of the same cultural restrictions on Inner Mongolians. However, Inner Mongolians are exempt from the government's one-child policy, and the PRC officially promotes the Mongol language.

In the past fifty years, there has been an increase in Mongolian immigration to the United States. Large communities have sprouted in New Jersey, Minnesota, and Southern California.

The Russian Federation also has some autonomous regions for descendants of the Mongols, such as the Buryats:

Kalmykia Autonomous Republic (Western Mongolians - Oirats)
Ust-Orda Buryats Autonomous District
Aga-Buryat Autonomous District
Buryatia Autonomous Republic

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References

Encyclopædia Britannica Almanac 2006, pg. 505
Introduction to the History of Mongolia, Indiana University - [1]
Genghis Khan and the Great Mongolian Empire, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology - [2]
Boyle, John Andrew. The Successors of Genghis Khan. (translated from the Persian of Rashid al-Din). Columbia University Press, 1971.

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