Pan-Germanism
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Pan-Germanism (in German Pangermanismus or Alldeutsche Bewegung) was a political movement of the 19th century aiming for unity of the German-speaking peoples of Europe. Some radical German immigrants in America also sought a union with their German "brothers" back in Europe.
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Origins
Pan-Germanism's origins began in the early 1800's following the Napoleonic Wars. The wars launched a massive new movement that was born in France itself during the French Revolution, Nationalism. Nationalism during the 1800's threatened the old aristocratic regimes. Many ethnic groups of Central and Eastern Europe had been divided for centuries, ruled over by the old Monarchies of the Romanovs and the Habsburgs. Germans, for the most part, had been a loose and disunited people since the Reformation when the Holy Roman Empire was shattered into a patchwork of states. The new German nationalists, mostly young reformers, like John Tillmann of East Prussia, sought to unite all the German-speaking and ethnic-German (Volksdeutsche) people.
Prussia, Austria and Nationalism
By the 1860's, Prussia and Austrian Empire were the two most powerful nations dominated by German speaking elites. Both of them sought to expand their influence and territory. The Austrian empire was multi-ethnic state where Germans didn't have absolute numerical majority; creation of Austro-Hungarian empire was one result of growing nationalism of other ethnicities. Prussia, under Otto von Bismarck, would end up riding on the back of Nationalism to unite all of modern-day Germany. The German Empire ("Second Reich") was created in 1871 following the crowning of Wilhelm I head of a union of German-speaking states. German-speakers living outside the new empire preferred living under its rule or in ethnically homegenous environment; this wish clashed with opposing wishes of other ethnicities. Regions like Austria and the Bohemia witnessed nationalistic controversies for decades.
Even some Austrians themselves began to resent their own diverse Empire. Identifying themselves as descendants of the Bavarians, who had conquered and expanded into the region, many Western Austrians supported a separation from the Habsburg Empire and unity with the new German Empire.
Post WW1 developments
Following World War I, influence of German-speaking elites over Central and Eastern Europe was crushed. Germany was defeated and Austria-Hungary was shattered. Many Austrians that were left and right wing wanted to be unified with Germany, but this was forbidden by the Treaty of Saint-Germain, as Britain and France were very afraid of the power of a greater Germany. German-speakers became minorities in Czechoslovakia, Italy, Hungary, Poland and Romania. New Slavic dominated states were typically prejudiced against their ethnic German citizens. After he seized power in Germany, Adolf Hitler began a radical policy of exploiting Pan-Germanism. The Sudetenland, in border areas of today Czech Republic, was one centre of controversy. The region had a German-speaking majority and its political representation preferred to join newly formed Austrian republic after 1918 but this attempt failed due to the Treaty of Saint-Germain. Hitler used the oppression of ethnic Germans to justify militarization of Germany and aggressive foreign policy. He forced the annexation of Austria under the threat of military force. The annexation was later confirmed in a sham-referendum held in March 1938, where apparently 99% of voters gave their confidence to be a part of Germany. This referendum and the result is viewed by historians to have been completely rigged. In late 1938, situation in the so-called Sudetenland became critical due to internal unrest sparked by Germany's pressure and Hitler threat with war. The region, with nearly 3 million German-speakers and hundreds of thousands of Czechs, was given to Germany at the Munich Conference, to appease Hitler and avoid world war. The occupation of the Sudetenland resulted in a forced expulsion of Czechs from that region.
By the height of World War II, Austrians, Czech Germans, Alsatians, Transylvanian Germans, Baltic Germans and South Tyrolese Germans were all under the control of Nazi Germany. The Nazis began relocating and re-settling Germans throughout Europe with aim of creating a huge and ethnically homogeneous Great Germany. People from other ethnics in this area were to be Germanized or expelled.
Ethnic Germans who were living outside the Nazi sphere of influence, such as in the Soviet Union in turn were interned in gulags or forcibly relocated, by the oppresion and discrimination of the Soviets.
Please see German exodus from Eastern Europe
Post WW2 and Decline of Pan-Germanism
World War II brought about the decline of Pan-Germanism, much as World War I had led to the demise of Pan-Slavism. The Germans in Central and Eastern Europe were expelled brutally, parts of Germany itself were devastated, and the country was divided on ideological lines into West Germany and East Germany. The scale of the Germans' defeat was unprecedented. Nationalism and Pan-Germanism became almost taboo, because they had been used so destructively by the Nazis. However, the reunification of Germany in 1990 revived the old debates. The fear of nationalistic misuse of Pan-Germanism nevertheless remains strong. It is for this reason that many Germans themselves fear the idea of a united "Volksdeutsche". Today, there are still sizable populations of German-speakers outside Germany in Switzerland, Belgium, France, Italy, Central Europe, and the former Soviet Union. For economic reasons many German-speakers from Central and Eastern Europe acquired German citizenship after the collapse of the Communist bloc. Still today, the idea of a unified Germany and Austria strikes memories of Nazism. The very fact that Germanic unity would stir forgotten and fearful memories that most people on both sides would rather not remember, forestalls any such union in the future.
Austrian identity today
In Austria, only the extreme right still clings to Pan-Germanism. During most of the Second Republic, this part was represented mostly by the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) (founded in 1955 and led by the internationally notorious populist politician Jörg Haider from 1986-2000).
Even though the party ranks of the FPÖ are largely made up of members of Pan-German Studentenverbindungen, the old Pan-German wing is in a minority. At the very least, Pan-Germanism is not part of its official program or a seriously proposed policy, as it is not popular with the Austrian electorate today. Jörg Haider attempted to refashion the party more into chauvinistic Austrian patriotism, which was quite apparent after the so-called "sanctions" imposed the leaders of the other 14 EU member states in response to the formation of the coalition government with the conservative ÖVP after the 1999 elections.
Likewise, the Alliance for the Future of Austria (BZÖ) party created by Haider in April 2005 does not promote pan-Germanism, although some of its prominent members (such as Herbert Haupt) have been known to participate in activities by right-wing Studentenverbindungen which can, at the very least, be called nostalgic towards Pan-Germanism.
Since the end of the War, and with the growth of newer generations, the self-image of Austrians has changed considerably. After the War, most still did not have any confidence in an independent Austria. With the passing of time and the consolidation of the state, and the passing of new generations, this attitude has changed to a more independent viewpoint. This change in attitude has been reflected in the way Austrian history is viewed. The rule of the Babenberg and Habsburg are seen as times, from which the country and its people can forge and build their identity.
To speak of a separate language though would be incorrect. The overwhelming majority of Austrians today are quite happy to be independent and enjoy their "Austrian",identity, except for a very few dwindling diehards.
Pan-Germanism is still alive amongst the extreme right and other associated groups.
See also
- Alldeutscher Verband
- Ethnic nationalism
- Romantic nationalism
- Philology
- Folklore
- Irredentismde:Pangermanismus
es:Pangermanismo fr:Pangermanisme ja:パン＝ゲルマン主義 pl:Pangermanizm pt:Pangermanismo sv:Pangermanism