St. Bartholomew's Day massacre

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Image:Massacre saint barthelemy.jpg The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (Massacre de la Saint-Barthélemy in French) was a wave of Catholic mob violence against the Huguenots (French Protestants), originally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de Medici, the mother of Charles IX. Starting on August 24, 1572, with the assassination of a prominent Huguenot, Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, the massacres spread throughout Paris and later to other cities and the countryside, lasting for several months, during which as many as 70,000 may have been killed. The massacres marked a turning-point in the French Wars of Religion by radicalising the Huguenot faction.

1 Background
2 The massacres
3 Controversy
4 Popular culture
5 External links

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Background

After the third war in 1570, there was a possibility of peace. The House of Guise had fallen from favour at the court and had been replaced by moderates who were more willing to find a peaceful solution to the crisis. The Huguenots were in a strong defensive position as a result of the Peace of Saint-Germain (August 1570). They controlled the fortified towns of La Rochelle, La Charité-sur-Loire, Cognac, and Montauban. Catherine de Medici had hoped that the marriage alliances of her children would support her move for peace, including the proposed marriage of her son, François, Duke of Anjou and Elizabeth I of England.

By 1571, however, hopes of peace were collapsing. Relations between the Huguenots and the Catholics had deteriorated, and in Rouen on a Sunday in March, forty Huguenots were killed as they emerged from the sermon, because they refused to kneel in front of the host (the eucharist) during a Catholic street procession.

With the Guise faction out at the French court, the Huguenot leader, Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, was readmitted into the king's council in September 1571. The Guises hated Coligny for two reasons: he was the leader of the Huguenots, and they thought he was implicated in the assassination of Francis, Duke of Guise, in February 1563.

The Catholic fleet assembled under Don John of Austria defeated the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto. This confirmed to the Huguenots that Catholicism could resurge across Western Europe, led by Philip II of Spain. In April 1572, Sea Beggars took control of Brielle, and thus Holland. This meant that there was pressure within France to intervene on behalf of the rebels in the Netherlands to prevent a Spanish intervention in France. Coligny was the main supporter of this intervention. There was then the possibility of either another civil war or a major war against Spain, which was at that time western Europe's greatest Catholic power.

Ostensibly to quell the rancour between the Protestants and the Catholics (the House of Bourbon and the House of Guise), the Queen-Mother, Catherine de Medici, arranged for Henry of Navarre, Duke of Bourbon, the patron of the Huguenots, to marry her daughter Marguerite. The wedding provided an extraordinary occasion to get all of the powerful Huguenots in one place. Catherine therefore planned the massacre of many of the Huguenots while they were in town for the wedding, but she had a hard time convincing her son, Charles IX of France, to go along, since he had developed a friendly relationship with Admiral de Coligny. Finally, after much argument, Charles became furious and lashed out at his mother, commanding the massacre to be done thoroughly if it were to be done at all — in other words, he didn't want to face any retaliation, so he ordered them all to be killed.

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The massacres

Admiral de Coligny had told his supporters who urged him to quit Paris that he was aware of the danger and of the Queen Mother's enmity, however he chose to linger at court in hopes of winning a concession from the King of greater tolerance for the Huguenot religion, in exchange for possible support in the Low Countries. On 22 August, Catherine's agent, a Catholic named Charles Maurevert, attempted to assassinate Admiral de Coligny on the street, but succeeded only in wounding him and infuriating the Huguenot party. Then in the early hours of the morning of 24 August, St. Bartholomew's Day, Coligny and several dozen other Huguenot leaders were murdered at the Inn of Ponthieu, where they were staying, in a series of coordinated assassinations that could only have been planned at the highest level. That was the signal for a widespread massacre. Beginning on 24 August, and lasting to 17 September, there was a wave of popular killings of Huguenots by the Paris mob, as if spontaneous.

"To be a Huguenot," wrote the historian Mézeray, "was to have money, enviable position, or avaricious heirs." Hence, according to Mézeray, when on the following morning the houses of all Protestants and even their suspected sympathizers were pillaged and blood flowed in streams, it was an outpouring of popular envy and resentment, mixed with religious zeal. As the massacres spread to the countryside, they were carried out by the peasantry against Huguenots who were perceived by them to be anti-Catholic and anti-national enemies of France.

From August to October, similar seemingly spontaneous massacres of Huguenots took place in other towns, such as Toulouse, Bordeaux, Lyon, Bourges, Rouen, and Orléans; again, carried out by the populace, not regiments of the crown. Estimates of the number of those murdered range as high as 100,000. A Huguenot source gives a figure of 70,000. Other sources estimate 30,000 or fewer. Among the slain was composer Claude Goudimel. Hilaire Belloc reckoned the number to be "perhaps 2,000" as he surmised the lasting impact of the massacres thus: "...for a time [the massacres] thoroughly cowed anti-Catholic nobles. The fury of the populace had a lasting effect which could never be undone." The number of victims in the provinces is unknown, with figures varying between 2,000 and 100,000. The Martyrologe des Huguenots, published in 1581, brings the toll up to 15,138, but mentions only 786 dead. At any rate only a short time afterwards the reformers were preparing for a fourth civil war.

"Catholics say only 30,000 were slain in the Inquisition of France. Protestants put the number at 70,000. We would prefer the latter figure. If there were 70,000 Huguenots in Paris on the night of the massacre, so much more the justification for the slaughter… We have heard ring out many times the very bells that called the Catholics together on that fatal night. They always sounded sweetly in our ears." (Western Watchman, No. 21, 1912)

Contemporary accounts report bodies in the rivers for months afterwards, so that no one would eat fish. Pope Gregory XIII's reaction was jubilant: all the bells of Rome pealed for a public day of thanksgiving, the guns of the Castel Sant'Angelo sounded a joyous salute, a special commemorative medal was struck to honour the occasion, and Gregory commissioned Giorgio Vasari to paint a mural depicting the Massacre, which is in the Vatican. In Paris, the poet Jean-Antoine de Baïf, founder of the Academie de Musique et de Poésie, wrote a sonnet extravagantly praising the killings. The Roman Catholic view was that the Protestant heretics got what they deserved.

Protestant countries were horrified at the bloody barbarity, and only the concentrated efforts of Catherine's ambassadors prevented the collapse of her policy of remaining on good terms with them.

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Controversy

One of the early historians of the tragic event, Jacques-Auguste de Thou (The History of the Bloody Massacres of the Protestants in France in the year of our Lord, 1572 (London 1674)), among others, suggests that the entire Protestant movement among the nobility in Europe was primarily motivated by avarice, as princes coveted the vast properties that had been acquired by the Roman Catholic church; and that when the Protestant Reformation took hold, French nobility forlornly looked on for several decades as the English nobility enriched themselves on stolen loot, and some of them sought a way to similarly fill their coffers. The Huguenot movement soon showed itself to be a genuine threat to the Guise family and the unity of France, after it was newly invigorated by the systematic teachings of John Calvin. According to de Thous these rival princes saw in the momentum of the Protestant cause that the opportunity had arrived, and thus they supported the Huguenots in hope of securing their personal fortunes.

Naturally, as with the Lutheran movement in Germany, there were many pedestrian and sincere followers of the Reformation. But in de Thous' view, shared by many critics of French Protestantism, the nobility's motivation for supporting the Huguenots was avaricious, not at all theological or philosophical. The most notable of these Huguenot political conspiracies against the crown was the Amboise plot in 1560, which was ultimately unsuccessful. During the Wars of Religion that ensued, the Huguenots were never an impotent faction, but rather had military strength and ample funding, which continually applied toward the overthrow of their Catholic rivals in France. Huguenot forces allegedly committed random massacres of Catholics, destroyed churches, shrines and private houses. For a time, it looked as if the Huguenots would win. In 1569, the Huguenot general, Gabriel de Montgomery, enjoyed a victory over the royal forces led by General Terride at the Battle of Orthez in French Navarre. The surrender of the Catholic nobility was predicated upon a promise by the Huguenots that their lives would be spared. In spite of that pledge, General Montgomery had the Catholic nobles massacred in cold blood on St. Bartholomew's Day, August 24, 1569. Thus, according to de Thous, the date was not arbitrarily chosen on which to unleash revenge on the House of Bourbon; however, he supposes that the killing was supposed to be limited to the nobility attending the wedding, in revenge for the betrayal of the Guise captives three years earlier to the day, in 1569.

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Popular culture

Image:Queen margot.JPG The story was fictionalised by Alexandre Dumas in La Reine Margot, an 1845 novel that is accurate as far as the historical facts go but fills in with romance and adventure between them. That novel has been translated into English and was made into a bawdy, commercially successful French film in 1994 under the same French title.

The massacre was also portrayed in D.W. Griffith's epic silent film Intolerance (1916).

Furthermore, the Elizabethan dramatist Christopher Marlowe knew well of this incident as French refugees sought refuge in his native Canterbury. He wrote an openly anti-Catholic and anti-French play based on the events entitled 'The Massacre at Paris'. Also, in his biography The World of Christopher Marlowe, David Riggs claims the incident remained with the playwright, and massacres are incorporated into the final acts of three of his early plays, 1 and 2 Tamburlaine and The Jew of Malta.

A serial in the British science fiction television series Doctor Who, The Massacre of St Bartholomew's Eve (a misnomer since the event took place the next day), is set during the events leading up to the Paris massacre. Leonard Sachs appeared as Admiral Coligny and Joan Young played Catherine de Medici. This serial only survives in audio form.

The pre-Raphaelite painter John Everett Millais famously captured the essence of the conflict in his painting "The Huguenot", which depicts a Catholic woman attempting to convince her Huguenot lover to wear the badge of the Catholics and protect himself. The man, true to his beliefs, gently refuses her.

See also the opera Les Huguenots by Giacomo Meyerbeer.

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