Sweden during World War II
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The policy of Sweden during World War II was to remain neutral. The Swedish neutrality had been in use for more than a century, since the end of the Napoleonic Wars.
When hostilities began on 1 September 1939, the fate of Sweden was unclear. Eventually, only five European nations were capable of sustaining a policy of neutrality throughout the entire war, even though 20 nations had held a policy of neutrality in September 1939. Sweden was one of those countries able to maintain this delicate balance and avoid engagement in the European Theatre. Sweden owed this to its northerly location in the Scandinavian Peninsula, its long-held neutral stance in international relations, a dedicated military build-up and to an unpredictable course of events which went in its favour. Another factor was that the Swedish government was forced to make concessions to Germany, such as allowing the Wehrmacht to use Swedish railways to transport an infantry division from Norway to Finland and to transport soldiers on leave between Norway and Germany.
Towards the end of the war, Sweden compromised the policy of neutrality in favor of the Allies, allowing Allied spies to listen to German radio signals on Swedish soil, and planning to aid in the liberation of Denmark and Norway.
Anglo-German naval agreement
Sweden's long-standing policy of neutrality was severely tested on numerous occasions during the 1930s. The challenges came from a strongly rejuvenated, nationalistic Germany. From 1919 until 1935, Sweden had been an active supporter of the League of Nations. Most of Sweden's energy in the international arena had been directed towards preservation of the League. However, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) of 1935 seriously jeopardised both Sweden's independence and its long-standing policy of peaceful neutrality. Signed on June 18, 1935, the agreement was a great shock to many Swedes. AGNA allowed Germany to increase the size of its navy to one-third the size of the British Royal Navy, despite the provisions agreed in the Treaty of Versailles. At the same time, Britain agreed to withdraw its navy from the Baltic Sea, leaving the Kriegsmarine the dominant power in that sea. This became a potential threat to Sweden and other countries in the region.
Pre-war preparations
Image:Gustavgoring1939.JPG Beginning in 1936, the Swedish government regularly increased its defense budget to strengthen its military preparedness as the international situation was seen to worsen. Military spending went from $37 million in 1936, to $50 million in 1937, to $58.575 million in 1938, and then increased over five-fold to $322.325 million in 1939. During the war itself, military spending peaked in 1942 at $527.575 million.
During European hostilities, Swedish industry had to supply an increased share of domestic goods, due the German blockade of the North Sea, as well as to satisfy the vastly increased demand for armaments. Before the war, annual production of armaments typically totalled tens of millions of Swedish kronor, but during the war, output exceeded SEK 1 billion (US$240 million).
Not only was the Swedish government buying materiel to strengthen its defenses, it began drafting conscripts. On May 6, 1938, the government called up the entire conscript class of 1923, then at the age of 35, for short periods of training. In addition to this, the Swedish Cabinet ordered that one quarter of the 1938 military draft intake be retained for further training.
In 1940, the Swedish Home Guard ( Hemvärnet), was created. Its units comprised small groups of former soldiers who were equipped with rifles, machine guns, ammunition, medicine and uniforms. They had the option to buy additional materials such as skis, sweaters and marching boots. The Swedish Women's Voluntary Defence Service, or Lottorna, had been created in 1924.
While arming itself, Sweden felt that it was necessary to articulate and enforce its policy of neutrality. Prime Minister Per Albin Hansson stated shortly before the Second World War began: "Friendly with all other nations and strongly linked to our neighbors, we look on no one as our enemy. There is no place in the thoughts of our people for aggression against any other country, and we note with gratitude assurances from others that they have no wish to disturb our peace, our freedom, or our independence. The strengthening of our defense preparations serves merely to underline our fixed determination to keep our country outside the conflicts among others and, during such conflicts, to safeguard the existence of our people." Other members of the Swedish government expressed similar sentiments. However, in the first years of the war, Sweden's geographical position required her to reluctantly cooperate with Nazi Germany and provide it with important goods like iron ore, essential to the war effort.
Georg Homin, a captain on the General Staff, said, "without a defensive force we cannot follow any policy of our own, our declarations become merely empty words, and we leave the country's fate to chance or to the decision of others. With a defense as strong as Swedish conditions allow we secure for ourselves the basis of a continued independent Swedish policy."
The defence of Finland
When the Soviet Union attacked Finland in 1939, an overwhelming number of Swedes favoured some sort of involvement in the conflict, both on a humanitarian and a military basis. Sweden's interest in Finland lay in the fact that Finland had been an integrated part of Sweden for more than six hundred years, Sweden losing control of the eastern provinces in 1809. Despite the government's policy of neutrality, as many as 8,000 Swedes voluntarily went to Finland to help the Finns defend their homeland against the advancing Red Army during the Winter War. The Swedish government did send food, clothing, medicine and a small quantity of weapons and ammunition to aid the Finns at the beginning of the war, but avoided any official military involvement. In addition, some 70,000 Finnish children were sent to safety from Finland to Sweden during the 1940s [1].
Press freedom and public perceptions
The public's sentiments were widely published in the Swedish press, causing many protests from the German government and prompting the Swedish government to censor areas of the press on a limited basis. In Sweden, the Press fell under the control of several councils, despite contemporary claims that the Swedish press was free. The Swedish Government War Information Board determined what military information was released and what information remained secret. The Swedish Press Council served as a "promotion of good relations between the press and the public authorities and to serve as an instrument of self-discipline for the press." The Press Council issued warnings, public or confidential, to those who abused the freedom of the press.
To say that Sweden had a truly free press was somewhat false. Sweden was concerned that its neutrality might run the risk of being unbalanced should its Press be too vocal in its opinions. Both the Press Council and the Information Board issued comments such as "As far as the material received permits, attempts should be made not to give prominence to the reports of one side at the expense of the other", or "headlines, whether on the billboards or in the newspapers, should be worded in such a way as to avoid favouring one side or the other", and finally, "editorials and surveys as well as articles discussing military events or the military situation, should be strictly objective...".
Foreign trade
A vital factor in Sweden's relations with the great powers, particularly Germany and Britain, was trade. Prior to the war Sweden had important trade connections with both countries. If Sweden had shown preference to either side, it would have threatened its neutrality and even its independence. Maintaining such trading partnerships was not only important politically, but in an economic sense as well. For example, in 1938 24 percent of Sweden's total exports went to Britain and another 18 percent to Germany.
The outbreak of war greatly affected trade with both countries. At the beginning of the war, agreements were signed between Sweden and the two great powers in order to sustain these vital export markets. However when Germany invaded Denmark and Norway in April 1940, coupled with a German blockade of the North Sea, Sweden's trade with Britain was cut by a total of 70 percent. Within the blockade trade with Germany increased, until 37 percent of Sweden's exports were shipped to Germany.
Potential Allied invasion
See also: Allied campaign in Norway
There was much speculation as to whether the Allies would consider an invasion of the European continent by way of Scandinavia rather than across the English Channel. Hitler was very concerned by such a prospect and was almost convinced that the Allies would invade Europe by way of Norway. Hitler's letter to Sweden's King Gustaf V, dated April 24, 1940, said, "I have no doubt that our action (the invasion of Norway and Denmark), which at the last moment forestalled the execution of the Allied plan and which under all circumstances will stop France and England from getting a foothold in Scandinavia, will have consequences which will be a blessing to the Scandinavian peoples."
Had such an Allied invasion of Norway occurred, Sweden would have undoubtedly been grievously affected. Sweden was considered to be situated in a prime location for air bases for Allied planes to effect air raids into Germany. Even towards the end of the war, when German capitulation seemed imminent, the Allies considered an invasion of Sweden, due in large part to Sweden's strategic location in relation to Germany.
German pressure
When Germany invaded Norway and Denmark on the 9th of April, 1940, demands were made stating that Sweden was to keep neutral and refrain from mobilizing to aid her neighbours. German communications were to continue uninterrupted through Swedish channels and the trade with iron ore was not to be disturbed. The Swedish government agreed, but secretly increased her armed forces during the following weeks, from 100,000 men to 320,000. More demands followed during the spring and summer, particularly for the transit of medical personnel, later stepped up to include ammunition and soldiers on leave. During the summer of 1941, the Swedish government was forced to accept the transit of a fully equipped German division headed to Finland, bound for the recently opened eastern front. In February, 1942, German presence in Norway was stepped up in preparation of an invasion of Sweden. Hitler was dissatisfied with Swedish cooperation and doubted its ability to defend against an allied attack through Norway, threatening ore resources. 300,000 Swedish soldiers were sent to the western border to train and prepare, but no invasion came and the crisis dissipated.
New research released on April 4, 2006 has shown that Sweden helped Germany to stop Germans from marrying Jews and suppressed criticism of Hitler and reports of atrocities. Stockholm University historian Klas Amark coordinated the research commissioned by Prime Minister Goran Persson in 2000 in connection with a Holocaust conference. The research showed that from 1937, Swedes wanting to marry Germans of so-called Aryan blood had to give written assurance that none of their grandparents belonged to the Jewish race or religion. This was a result of an order from the Ministry for Foreign Affairs (Utrikesdepartementet), saying that a Hague Convention of 1902 required its signatories to enforce other countries' marriage laws on those countries' citizens. The order "lacked historic and democratic legitimacy and was also foreign to Swedish law", according to Professor Anders Jarlert, one of the researchers involved [2]. Some marriages between "Aryan" Germans and Jews were annulled by the courts. However, many priests married such couples in defiance of the order [3]. Newspapers gagged criticism of Hitler, of the occupation of Norway, and of the murder of millions of Jews in concentration camps, while cultural links between Germany and Sweden flourished. [4]
After 1943
From 1943 onwards, Germany began to meet with a greater amount of misfortune after its losses at Stalingrad and elsewhere. Germany was forced into a more defensive position, while Allied forces met with greater success on the battlefield, such as in North Africa. Such a position allowed Sweden to be more decisive in its own policies and actions. Prior to 1943, Sweden's policy of neutrality was largely under the influence of German politics and the course of events that involved Germany, and it has been said that of the neutral nations in Europe during the war, only Switzerland and Portugal were completely neutral at that time. Following August and September 1943, Sweden was able to resist German demands and soften its stance to Allied pressure. However, despite Germany's defensive posture, Sweden was in constant fear that "the whole course of events suggested that the unexpected might happen," an attitude that was sustained until the very end of the war. With Germany's weakening position came stronger demands from the Allies. The Allies pushed for Sweden to abandon its trade with Germany, and to stop all German troop transit over Swedish soil. Sweden initially turned down such requests, but over time gradually gave in to the demands.
In 1943 Sweden received thousands of Jewish immigrants from Denmark. With the dissolution of the Danish government in the summer of 1943, the German authorities had decided to deport the Danish Jewish population to concentration camps. However, the Danes successfully transported the vast majority to Sweden in a vast rescue effort. There, they were granted asylum. Many stayed in Sweden after the war. Sweden also received refugees from Finland and Norway. This was made possible due to Sweden's neutrality.
Neutrality also made it possible for Sweden to have access to Germany, which was not only useful to Swedish intelligence but also to the Allies. Count Folke Bernadotte, a relative of the royal family, was able to communicate with the German government, and relay information back to Sweden, as did other spies. He also contributed to saving 15,000 prisoners from concentration camps, including some Jews, as did the famous Raoul Wallenberg, who saved perhaps 100,000 Hungarian Jews.
Sweden's collaboration with the Allies
It is also important to mention that in 1945, as the Allies were planning to liberate Denmark and Norway, the United States wanted Sweden to cooperate in this action. Sweden began preparing for "Operation Rädda Danmark" (Operation Save Denmark), in which Sweden was to invade Zealand from Scania. After Denmark had been liberated, Sweden was to assist the Allies in the invasion of Norway. Though this was not necessary in the end, US planes were allowed to use Swedish millitary bases during the liberation of Norway, from spring of 1944 to 1945. The Allied were also collaborating with C-byrån, the Swedish military intelligence. Sweden allowed Allied spies to listen to German radio signals from a station on Öland, and in Malmö a location was established for British military to lead bombing actions in Germany. Also, since 1943, Norwegian soldiers were being trained at Swedish military bases. This part of the story is rarely mentioned, but it is important to note because it shows how Sweden was very close to abandoning her neutrality in favor of the Allied cause, making Sweden almost an ally. The collaboration with the Allies was considered a far greater breech of neutrality than the concessions to the Germans, but it is often overshadowed by these concessions. Sweden's collaboration with the Germans was only out of necessity and in the end Sweden was willing to participate in the Allied liberation of her neighbors, once the threat of a German invasion was gone.
Sweden and its "co-operation" with Germany during the Second World War
Many people say that Sweden's worst treachery during the Second World War was the extensive export of iron ore to the German weapon industry. When the world, during the Winter War period, understood how Hitler prepared for war and the danger for a new war became obvious, the Swedish iron ore became a big interest. The ore was regarded to be Hitler's Achilles heel, since he was so dependent on it. Sweden had the power to reduce the export, which would reduce Hitler's armament industry as well. Calculations say that the Swedish iron ore export lengthened the war with two years. In a message from Ralph Glynn, a member of the English parliament, he let us know just how dependent Germany was of Sweden. If we stopped our export it would lead to an end of the war within six months, and if German troops would attack Sweden, the English would come to our rescue. But the Swedish government had other plans in mind, since the iron ore financed much of the Swedish life during the war. We received coal in exchange, and what the iron ore was used for was not Sweden's problem, the main thing was that the Swedish people lived a good life. The Allies tried to get Sweden to reduce the export, and finally the country came to an agreement about a yearly iron export to Germany. The Germans were still co-operative, because Sweden had found a good way to cheat the Allies. Sweden did not keep any record of the export to Germany. When the war became worse for the Germans, Sweden turned its interest towards the Allies. Another thing the Germans had need of was ball bearings and Sweden had the best. Sweden evaded the trade agreement and smuggled goods to both Germany and England. In 1944, Sweden promised the Allies to reduce the ball bearing export as well, but found a loophole in the agreement and started to export ball bearing steal and ball bearing machines. Sweden was prepared to do everything, and made money off the war even though it condemned it. Swedes warmed themselves with coal from occupied parts of Poland, while the Polish people suffered. Many people were against what was happening, but the risk of loosing their jobs if they said anything was to big so they just pretended not knowing anything about it.
Sweden and the Jewish people
In the beginning of the war, nobody knew about the German concentration camps and the treating of Jews. But after some years of war the knowledge of these camps was spread into Sweden, and many leaders in the country knew about it, without doing anything. Sweden was the first country which got information about the concentration camps, the annihilation of the Jews, and about "Die Endlösung" the final solution. The reason to why Sweden didn´t intervene was that it wasn´t very good to make trouble with the Germans, and Sweden was also afraid of an invasion from Germany. The Swedes worried more about the Jewish immigration than about the Jewish suffering in German camps. Swedish newspapers wrote about how bad the Jewish was treated in Europe, but the Swedes were often suspicious and thought of it as overstatement propaganda. People in Sweden saw how the Jews "stole" their jobs, and many thought of preserving the Aryan race. German tourists had no problem getting into Sweden, but Jews on the other hand needed two passports to enter Sweden. It was a Swedeish proposal to mark the Jews´ passports with a big "J" so they could be identified as Jews and stopped. Other countries also started with the same method, and later on there came laws which forbade Jews to travel through Sweden. But, Sweden didn´t act that execrable all the time. It received a large number of refugees both from Norway and Denmark, and when the persecution of Jews started in Denmark, many Jews went over to Sweden to find asylum there. The greatest rescue operation during the war was carried out by the Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg, who succeeded in saving thousands of Jews before he himself was brought to an unknown fate by the Russians. Sweden also sent the well-known White Buses, organized by Folke Bernadotte to rescue Jews from the concentration camps. Many of the Jews who survived live in Sweden today.