Woodrow Wilson
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Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 – February 3, 1924) was the 28th President of the United States (1913–1921). A devout Presbyterian, he became a noted historian and political scientist. As a reform Democrat he was elected Governor of New Jersey in 1910 and President in 1912. His first term as president resulted in major legislation including the Federal Reserve System. Reelected in 1916, his second term centered on World War I and his efforts in 1919 to shape the Treaty of Versailles, which was rejected by the Senate.
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Political writings and academic career
Wilson came of age in the decades after the Civil War, when the Congress was supreme—"the gist of all policy is decided by the legislature"—and corruption rampant. Instead of focusing on individuals in explaining where American politics went wrong, Wilson focused on the American constitutional structure. <ref>Congressional Government, 180</ref>
Under the influence of Walter Bagehot's The English Constitution, Wilson saw the American Constitution as pre-modern, cumbersome, and open to corruption. An admirer of Parliament (though he first visited London in 1919), Wilson favored a parliamentary system for the United States. Writing in the early 1880s, Wilson wrote
- "I ask you to put this question to yourselves, should we not draw the Executive and Legislature closer together? Should we not, on the one hand, give the individual leaders of opinion in Congress a better chance to have an intimate party in determining who should be president, and the president, on the other hand, a better chance to approve himself a statesman, and his advisors capable men of affairs, in the guidance of Congress?" <ref>The Politics of Woodrow Wilson, 41–48</ref>
Wilson started Congressional Government, his best known political work, as an argument for a parliamentary system, but Wilson was impressed by Grover Cleveland, and Congressional Government emerged as a critical description of America's system, with frequent negative comparisons to Westminster. Wilson himself claimed, "I am pointing out facts,—diagnosing, not prescribing, remedies.". <ref>Congressional Government, 205</ref>
Wilson believed that America's intricate system of checks and balances was the cause of the problems in American governance. He said that the divided power made it impossible for voters to see who was accountable for ill-doing. If government behaved badly, Wilson asked,
- "...how is the schoolmaster, the nation, to know which boy needs the whipping? ... Power and strict accountability for its use are the essential constituents of good government.... It is, therefore, manifestly a radical defect in our federal system that it parcels out power and confuses responsibility as it does. The main purpose of the Convention of 1787 seems to have been to accomplish this grievous mistake. The 'literary theory' of checks and balances is simply a consistent account of what our Constitution makers tried to do; and those checks and balances have proved mischievous just to the extent which they have succeeded in establishing themselves... [the Framers] would be the first to admit that the only fruit of dividing power had been to make it irresponsible." <ref>Congressional Government, 186–7 </ref>
The longest section of Congressional Government is on the United States House of Representatives, where Wilson pours out scorn for the committee system. Power, Wilson wrote, "is divided up, as it were, into forty-seven signatories, in each of which a Standing Committee is the court baron and its chairman lord proprietor. These petty barons, some of them not a little powerful, but none of them within reach the full powers of rule, may at will exercise an almost despotic sway within their own shires, and may sometimes threaten to convulse even the realm itself." <ref>Congressional Government, 76</ref>. Wilson said that the committee system was fundamentally undemocratic, because committee chairs, who ruled by seniority, were responsible to no one except their constituents, even though they determined national policy.
In addition to their undemocratic nature, Wilson also believed that the Committee System facilitated corruption.
- "the voter, moreover, feels that his want of confidence in Congress is justified by what he hears of the power of corrupt lobbyists to turn legislation to their own uses. He hears of enormous subsidies begged and obtained... of appropriations made in the interest of dishonest contractors; he is not altogether unwarranted in the conclusion that these are evils inherent in the very nature of Congress; there can be no doubt that the power of the lobbyist consists in great part, if not altogether, in the facility afforded him by the Committee system. <ref>Congressional Government, 132 </ref>
But by the time Wilson finished Congressional Government, Grover Cleveland was president, and Wilson had his faith in the United States government restored. By the time he became president, Wilson had seen vigorous presidencies from William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt, and Wilson no longer entertained thoughts of parliamentary government at home. In his last scholarly work in 1908, Constitutional Government of the United States, Wilson said that the presidency "will be as big as and as influential as the man who occupies it". By the time of his presidency, Wilson merely hoped that presidents could be party leaders in the same way prime ministers were. Wilson also hoped that the parties could be reorganized along ideological, not geographic, lines. "Eight words," Wilson wrote, "contain the sum of the present degradation of our political parties: No leaders, no principles; no principles, no parties." <ref>Frozen Republic, 145</ref>
Academic career
Wilson served on the faculties of Bryn Mawr College and Wesleyan University (where he also coached the football team) before joining the Princeton faculty as professor of jurisprudence and political economy in 1890. A popular teacher and respected scholar, Wilson delivered an oration at Princeton's sesquicentennial celebration (1896) entitled "Princeton in the Nation's Service". (This has become a frequently alluded-to motto of the University, sometimes expanded to "Princeton in the World's Service.") In this famous speech, he outlined his vision of the university in a democratic nation, calling on institutions of higher learning "to illuminate duty by every lesson that can be drawn out of the past".
The trustees promoted Professor Wilson to president of Princeton in 1902. He had bold plans. Although the school's endowment was barely $4 million, he sought $2 million for a preceptorial system of teaching, $1 million for a school of science, and nearly $3 million for new buildings and salary raises. As a long-term objective Wilson sought $3 million for a graduate school and $2.5 million for schools of jurisprudence and electrical engineering, as well as a museum of natural history. He achieved little of that because he was not a strong fund raiser, but he did grow the faculty from 112 to 174 men, most of them personally selected as outstanding teachers. The curriculum guidelines he developed proved important progressive innovations in the field of higher education. To enhance the role of expertise Wilson instituted academic departments and a system of core requirements where students met in groups of six with preceptors, followed by two years of concentration in a selected major. He tried to raise admission standards and to replace the "gentleman C" with serious study. Wilson aspired, as he told alumni, "to transform thoughtless boys performing tasks into thinking men."
In 1906-10 he attempted to curtail the influence of the elitist "social clubs" by moving the students into colleges, meeting with bitter resistance from many alumni. Wilson felt that to compromise "would be to temporize with evil.". <ref>Walworth 1:109</ref> Even more damaging was his confrontation with Andrew Fleming West, Dean of the graduate school, and West's ally, former president Grover Cleveland, a trustee. Wilson wanted to integrate the proposed graduate building into the same quadrangle with the undergraduate colleges; West wanted them separated. West outmaneuvered Wilson and the trustees rejected Wilson's plan for colleges in 1908, and then endorsed West's plans in 1909. The national press covered the confrontation as a battle of the elites (West) versus democracy (Wilson). Wilson, after considering resignation, decided to take up invitations to move into New Jersey state politics. <ref>Walworth v 1 ch 6, 7, 8</ref> In 1911 Wilson was elected Governor of New Jersey, and served in this office until becoming President in 1913.
Presidency 1913-1921
Wilson experienced early success by implementing his "New Freedom" pledges of antitrust modification, tariff revision, and reform in banking and currency matters.
Federal reserve 1913
The most impressive achievement was passage of the Federal Reserve system in late 1913. He took a bankers' plan that had been designed by conservative Republicans, led by Nelson A. Aldrich and banker Paul M. Warburg and passed it. Wilson had to outmaneuver the powerful agrarian wing of the party, led by William Jennings Bryan, which strenuously denounced banks and Wall Street. They wanted a government owned central bank which could print paper money whenever Congress wanted; Wilson convinced them that because Federal Reserve notes were obligations of the government, the plan fit their demands. Southerners and westerners learned from Wilson that that the system was decentralized into 12 districts and surely would weaken New York and strengthen the hinterlands. One key opponent Congressman Carter Glass, was given credit for the bill, and his home of Richmond, Virginia, was made a district headquarters. Powerful Senator James Reed of Missouri was given two district headquarters in St. Louis and Kansas City. Wilson named Warburg and other prominent bankers to direct the new system, pleasing the bankers. The New York branch dominated the Fed and thus power remained in Wall Street. [Link 1954 pp 43-53; Link 1956 pp 199-240] The new system began operations in 1915 and played a major role in financing the Allied and American war efforts.
Other economic policies
The Underwood tariff lowered the tariff. The revenue thereby lost was replaced by a new federal income tax (authorized by the 16th Amendment, which had been sponsored by the Republicans.) The "Seaman's Act" of 1915 improved working conditions for merchant sailors. A response to the Titanic disaster, it required all ships to be retrofitted with lifeboats. This caused the cruise ship "Eastland" to be topheavy; it sank in Chicago killing over 800 tourists.
A series of programs were targeted at farmers. The "Smith Lever" act of 1914 created the modern system of acricultural extension agents sponsored by the state agriocultural colleges. The agents taught new techniques to farmers in every county. The 1916 the "Federal Farm Loan Board" which issued low-cost long-term mortgages to farmers.
Child labor was curtailed by the Keating-Owen act of 1916, but the Supreme Court declared in unconstitutional in 1918.
The railroad brotherhoods threatened in summer 1916 to shut down the national transportation system. Wilson tried to bring labor and management together, but when management refused he had Congress pass the "Adamson Act" in September, 1916, which avoided the strike by imposing an 8-hour day in the industry (at the same pay as before.) It helped Wilson gain union support for his reelection; the act was approved by the Supreme Court.
Antitrust
Wilson broke with the "big-lawsuit" tradition of his predecessors Taft and Roosevelt as "Trustbusters", finding a new approach to encouraging competition through the Federal Trade Commission, which stopped "unfair" trade practices. In addition he pushed through Congress the Clayton Antitrust Act making certain business practices illegal (such as price discrimination, agreements forbidding retailers from handling other companies’ products, and directorates and agreements to control other companies). The power of this legislation was greater than previous anti-trust laws, because individual officers of corporations could be held responsible if their companies violated the laws, bringing the consequences closer to home. More importantly, the new laws set out clear guidelines that corporations could follow, a dramatic improvement over the previous uncertainties. This law was considered the "Magna Carta" of labor by Samuel Gompers because it ended union liability antitrust laws. In 1916 under threat of a national railroad strike he approved legislation that increased the wages, and cut the hours of railroad employees; there was no strike.
Until Wilson announced his support for the suffrage amendment, a group of women calling themselves the Silent Sentinels protested in front of the White House, holding banners such as "Mr. President—What will you do for woman suffrage?"
War policy - World War I
Wilson spent 1914 through the beginning of 1917 trying to keep America out of the War in Europe. He offered to be a mediator, but neither the Allies nor the Central Powers took his requests seriously. Republicans, led by Theodore Roosevelt, strongly criticized Wilson’s refusal to build up the Army in anticipation of the threat of war. Wilson won the support of the US peace element by arguing that an army buildup would provoke war. He vigorously protested Germany’s use of submarines as illegal, causing his Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan to resign, in protest, in 1915. Wilson was able to narrowly win reelection in 1916 by picking up many votes that had gone to Roosevelt or Eugene V. Debs in 1912. His supporters praised him for avoiding war with Germany or Mexico, while maintaining a firm national policy.
When Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 and made a clumsy attempt to get Mexico as an ally (see Zimmermann Telegram), Wilson took America into the Great War as a “war to end all wars." He did not sign any alliance with Britain or France but operated as an independent force. He raised a massive army through conscription and gave command to General John J. Pershing, allowing Pershing a free hand as to tactics, strategy and even diplomacy. Image:Wilson announcing the break in the official relations with Germany.jpg
Wilson had decided by then that the war had become a real threat to humanity. Unless the U.S. threw its weight into the war, as he stated in his declaration of war speech, Western civilization itself could be destroyed. His statement announcing a "war to end all wars" meant that he wanted to build a basis for peace that would prevent future catastrophic wars and needless death and destruction. This provided the basis of Wilson's Fourteen Points, which were intended to resolve territorial disputes, ensure free trade and commerce, and establish a peacemaking organization, which later emerged as the League of Nations.
To stop defeatism at home, Wilson pushed the Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 through Congress to suppress anti-British, pro-German, or anti-war opinions. He welcomed Socialists who supported the war, like Walter Lippmann, but would not tolerate those who tried to impede the war efforts, many of whom ended up in prison. His wartime policies were strongly pro-labor, and the American Federation of Labor and other unions saw enormous growth in membership and wages. There was no rationing, so consumer prices soared. As income taxes skyrocketed, white collar workers suffered. Appeals to buy war bonds were highly successful, however. Bonds had the result of shifting the cost of the war to the affluent 1920s.
Wilson set up the United States Committee on Public Information, headed by George Creel (thus its popular name, Creel Commission), which filled the country with patriotic anti-German appeals and conducted various forms of censorship.
Other foreign affairs
Between 1914 and 1918, the United States intervened in Latin America, particularly in Mexico, Haiti, Cuba, and Panama. The U.S. maintained troops in Nicaragua throughout his administration and used them to select the president of Nicaragua and then to force Nicaragua to pass the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty. American troops in Haiti forced the Haitian legislature to choose the candidate Wilson selected as Haitian president.
After Russia left the war following the Bolshevik Revolution and started providing help to the Germans, the Allies sent troops to prevent a German takeover. Wilson sent expeditionary forces to Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, and Vladivostok. American forces penetrated westward from Vladivostok to Lake Baikal in cooperation with Britain and France, and in joint command with Japanese soldiers. American troops finally left Vladivostok on April 1, 1920.
Versailles 1919
After the Great War, Wilson participated in negotiations with the stated aim of assuring statehood for formerly oppressed nations and an equitable peace. On January 8, 1918, Wilson made his famous Fourteen Points address, introducing the idea of a League of Nations, an organization with a stated goal of helping to preserve territorial integrity and political independence among large and small nations alike.
Wilson intended the Fourteen Points as a means toward ending the war and achieving an equitable peace for all the nations. He spent six months at Versailles for the 1919 Paris Peace Conference (making him the first U.S. president to travel to Europe while in office). He worked tirelessly to promote his plan. The charter of the proposed League of Nations was incorporated into the conference's Treaty of Versailles.
For his peacemaking efforts, Wilson was awarded the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize. However Wilson failed to win Senate support for ratification and the United States never joined the League. Republicans under Henry Cabot Lodge controlled the Senate after the 1918 elections, but Wilson refused to give them a voice at Paris, and refused to agree to Lodge's proposed changes. The key point of disagreement was whether the League would diminish the power of Congress to declare war. Historians in 2006 ranked Wilson's failure as the #4 worst presidential mistake ever made.[1]
Post war: 1919-20
After the war, in 1919, major strikes and race riots broke out. In the Red Scare, his attorney general ordered the Palmer Raids to deport foreign born agitators and jail domestic ones. In 1918, Wilson had the Socialist leader Eugene V. Debs arrested for trying to discourage enlistment in the army. His conviction was upheld by the Supreme Court.
Wilson broke with many of his closest political friends and allies in 1918-20. He dreamed of a third term, but his Democratic party was in turmoil, with Irish and German voters outraged at the party for Wilson having entered World War I on the British-French side.
Incapacity
On October 2, 1919, Wilson suffered a serious stroke that almost totally incapacitated him; he could barely move his own body. The extent of his disability was kept from the public until after his death. Wilson was purposely, with few exceptions, kept out of the presence of Vice President Thomas R. Marshall, his cabinet or Congressional visitors to the White House for the remainder of his presidential term. Meanwhile, his second wife, Edith Wilson, served as steward, selecting issues for his attention and delegating other issues to his cabinet heads. This was, as of 2006, the most serious case of presidential disability in American history, and was later cited as a key example why ratification of the 25th amendment was seen as important.
Significant presidential acts
- Signed Revenue Act of 1913
- Signed Federal Reserve Act of 1913
- Signed Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916
- Signed Espionage Act of 1917
- Signed Sedition Act of 1918
Administration and Cabinet
Wilson's chief of staff ("Secretary") was Joseph Patrick Tumulty 1913-1921, but he was largely upstaged after 1916 by Wilson's wife, Edith Bolling Wilson, who assumed full control of Wilson's schedule after September 1919.
| OFFICE | NAME | TERM |
| President | Woodrow Wilson | 1913–1921 |
| Vice President | Thomas R. Marshall | 1913–1921 |
| Secretary of State | William J. Bryan | 1913–1915 |
| Robert Lansing | 1915–1920 | |
| Bainbridge Colby | 1920–1921 | |
| Secretary of the Treasury | William G. McAdoo | 1913–1918 |
| Carter Glass | 1918–1920 | |
| David F. Houston | 1920–1921 | |
| Secretary of War | Lindley M. Garrison | 1913–1916 |
| Newton D. Baker | 1916–1921 | |
| Attorney General | James C. McReynolds | 1913–1914 |
| Thomas W. Gregory | 1914–1919 | |
| A. Mitchell Palmer | 1919–1921 | |
| Postmaster General | Albert S. Burleson | 1913–1921 |
| Secretary of the Navy | Josephus Daniels | 1913–1921 |
| Secretary of the Interior | Franklin K. Lane | 1913–1920 |
| John B. Payne | 1920–1921 | |
| Secretary of Agriculture | David F. Houston | 1913–1920 |
| Edwin T. Meredith | 1920–1921 | |
| Secretary of Commerce | William C. Redfield | 1913–1919 |
| Joshua W. Alexander | 1919–1921 | |
| Secretary of Labor | William B. Wilson | 1913–1921 |
Supreme Court appointments
Wilson appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:
- James Clark McReynolds - 1914
- Louis Dembitz Brandeis - 1916
- John Hessin Clarke - 1916
Race and Ethnicity
Image:Wilson-quote-in-birth-of-a-nation.jpg As President, Wilson imposed official segregation in government offices, for the first time since 1863. Woodrow Wilson's History of the American People, which contained praise for the KKK of the 1860s, is repeatedly quoted in the film The Birth of a Nation, although Wilson said at the time he did not approve of the movie. <ref>Link vol 2 pp 252-4</ref>
Wilson had some harsh words to say about immigrants in his history books, although once in office he never repeated these sentiments. Wilson worked hard to integrate new immigrants into the Democratic party, into the army, and into American life. For example the war bond campaigns were set up so that ethnic groups could boast how much money they gave. He demanded in return during the war that they repudiate any loyalty to the enemy, saying, "Any man who carries a hyphen about with him carries a dagger that he is ready to plunge into the vitals of this Republic whenever he gets ready."
Later life
In 1921, Wilson and his wife retired from the White House to a home in the Embassy Row section of Washington, D.C. Wilson died there on February 3, 1924. He was buried in Washington National Cathedral. Mrs. Wilson stayed in the home another 37 years, dying on December 28, 1961.
Trivia
- Wilson remains the only American president to have earned a research doctoral degree.
- Woodrow Wilson was the 28th president and was born on December 28.
- His carved initials are still visible on the underside of a table in the History Department at the Johns Hopkins University.
- Wilson was an early automobile enthusiast and, while president, he took daily rides.
- Wilson was an avid fan of the New York Giants baseball club.
- His earliest memory, from age 3, was of hearing that Abraham Lincoln had been elected and that a war was coming.
- Wilson would forever recall standing for a moment at Robert E. Lee's side and looking up into his face.
- Wilson was one of only two presidents (Theodore Roosevelt was the first) to become President of the National Historical Association.
- Wilson was president of the American Political Science Association from 1910 to 1911.
- Wilson has been the subject of books by three noteworthy authors. Herbert Hoover's The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson is extremely sympathetic, and remains the only book written by one ex-President about another one. Sigmund Freud and William Bullitt's Thomas Woodrow Wilson: A Psychological Study is devastatingly unsympathetic, and was unpublished for 30 years after Freud's death.
- Wilson is the only U.S. president buried in Washington, D.C. (Washington National Cathedral)
- Wilson was a member of the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity.
Media
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See also
- U.S. presidential election, 1912
- U.S. presidential election, 1916
- History of the United States (1865–1918)
- USS Woodrow Wilson (SSBN-624) (An USN SSBN named after President Wilson.)
- Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library
References
Secondary sources
- Bailey; Thomas A. Wilson and the Peacemakers: Combining Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace and Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal (1947)
- Brands, H. W. Woodrow Wilson 1913-1921'’ (2003)
- Clements, Kendrick, A. Woodrow Wilson : World Statesman (1999)
- Clements, Kendrick A. The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson (1992)
- Greene, Theodore P. Ed. Wilson at Versailles (1957)
- Hofstadter, Richard. "Woodrow Wilson: The Conservative as Liberal" in The American Political Tradition (1948), ch. 10.
- Knock, Thomas J. To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (1995)
- Link, Arthur Stanley. Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917 (1972)
- Link, Arthur Stanley. Wilson: The Road to the White House (1947), first volume of standard biography (to 1917); Wilson: The New Freedom (1956); Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality: 1914-1915 (1960); Wilson: Confusions and Crises: 1915-1916 (1964); Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace: 1916-1917 (1965), the last volume of standard biography
- Link, Arthur S.; Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies (1957)
- Link, Arthur S.; Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, 1913-1921 (1982)
- Livermore, Seward W. Woodrow Wilson and the War Congress, 1916-1918 (1966)
- May, Ernest R. The World War and American Isolation, 1914-1917 (1959)
- Saunders, Robert M. In Search of Woodrow Wilson: Beliefs and Behavior (1998)
- Walworth, Arthur. Woodrow Wilson Vol. 1 (1958), Pulitzer prize winning biography to 1915.
- Arthur Walworth; Wilson and His Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919 W. W. Norton, 1986
- (12)-Taken directly from Lies My Teacher Told Me by James W. Loewen
- [N. Gordon Levin, Jr., Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America's Response to War and Revolution( New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 67. Everett M. Dirksen, "Use of U.S. Armed Forces in Foreign Countries," Congresseional Record, June 23, 1969, 16840-43]
Primary sources
- The Papers of Woodrow Wilson ed. By Arthur S. Link complete in 69 vol, at major academic libraries. Annotated edition of all of WW's letters, speeches and writings plus many letters written to him
- Tumulty; Joseph P. Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him (1921) memoir by chief of staff
- Wilson, Woodrow. The New Freedom (1913) 1912 campaign speeches
- Wilson, Woodrow. Why We Are at War (1917) six war messages to Congress, Jan- April 1917
- Wilson, Woodrow. Selected Literary & Political Papers & Addresses of Woodrow Wilson (3 vol 1918 and later editions)
- Wilson, Woodrow. Messages & Papers of Woodrow Wilson 2 vol (ISBN: 1135198128)
- Wilson, Woodrow. The New Democracy. Presidential Messages, Addresses, and Other Papers (1913-1917) 2 vol 1926 (ISBN: 0898757754
External links
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- Official White House biography
- Audio clips of Wilson's speeches
- Woodrow Wilson – Biography
- First Inaugural Address
- Second Inaugural Address
- President Wilson's War Address
- Woodrow Wilson Biography
- Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library at His Birthplace Staunton, Virginia
- Boyhood Home of President Woodrow Wilson Augusta, GA
- Woodrow Wilson House Washington,DC
- Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars Washington,DC
- Woodrow Wilson Links
- Template:Gutenberg author
- Library of Congress: "Today in History: December 28"
- Library of Congress: "Today in History: June 9"
- Woodrow Wilson Ancestral Home http://www.discovernorthernireland.com/product.aspx?ProductID=2941
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