Mercenary War
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/* Course of the War */ I suppose he is the Gesco cited before
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{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict= Mercenary War
|partof= Punic Wars
(interlude conflict between First and Second)
|image=
|caption=
|date= 240 BC - 238 BC
|place= North Africa, Carthage, Utica, Tunisia, Sicca Veneria (modern El Kef).
|territory=
|result= Cathaginian Victory
|combatant1= Carthage
|combatant2= Carthages's mercenary army of the First Punic War.
|commander1= Hanno the Great,
Hamilcar Barca.
|commander2= Spendius,
Matho,
Naravas,
Other mercenary commanders.
|strength1= Unknown.
|strength2= Uncertain. 20,000 mercenaries transported from Sicily. Uncertain how many were on the mainland prior to this.
|casualties1= Unknown
|casualties2= Total. Some 50,000 were reported killed at the Battle of "The Saw"
|notes=
}}
Template:Campaignbox Punic Wars
Template:Campaignbox Mercenary War
The Mercenary War, also called the Libyan war and the Truceless war by Polybius, was an uprising of mercenaries in the employ of Carthage in the 3rd century BC. The revolt was a consequence of delays in payment following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War.
Contents |
Background
In 241 BC the First Punic War between Rome and Carthage came to an end with Carthaginian defeat<ref>Appian, History of Rome: The Sicilian Wars, 2.4-2.6; Livy, History of Rome, 21:18.10, 21:19.2-19.4, 21:41, 30:44.1-44.2, Perioche, 19.12-19.13; Naevius,41-43; Nepos, 21:1.4-1.5; Polybius, 1:62.4-63.3, 3:27.1-27.6, and 3:29.2-29.10; Silius, 6:687-697; Victor, 41.2; Walbank, 565.</ref>. As part of the terms of the treaty, Rome demanded that Carthage give up "all islands lying between Sicily and Italy", immediately pay Rome a sum of 1,000 talents of gold, and pay a further 2,000 talents over a period of 10 years <ref>Polybius, 1:62.7-63.3</ref>. After meeting the Roman demands, a destitute Carthage now found itself in a quandry: it had employed numerous mercenaries in the First Punic War and now found it difficult to pay its own soldiers <ref name=PAY>Polybius, 1:66.5</ref>.
This was a problem, as some 20,000 mercenaries, formerly under the command of Hamilcar Barca (who had resigned his command at the end of the First Punic War<ref name=RESIGN>Polybius, 1:66.1, 1:68.12; Zonaras, 17.c. </ref>), would shortly be returning from Lilybaeum (modern Marsala in Sicily) to Carthage. Concerned about the possibility of a large, disgruntled, mercenary force encamped near Carthage, Gesco, the Carthaginian commandant responsible for transporting the mercenaries from Sicily, attempted to deploy the mercenaries throughout Carthaginian terrority. It was his plan to bring the mercenary units back to the capital one at a time, for demobilization and payment. However, delays by the Carthaginian governement, and a belief that the mercenaries could be convinced to settle for less than their agreed wages, resulted in the eventual gathering of most of the mercenary armies near Carthage. Wary of such a large foreign army near the capital, and alarmed by the disruptive effects they were having on the city, the Carthaginian government convinced the mercenaries to withdraw to the nearby city of Sicca Veneria (Modern El Kef), 170 km south-west of Carthage, taking their families and baggage trains with them<ref name=SICCA>Polybius, 1:66.1-66.9</ref>.
Once in Sicca Veneria, the mercenaries collaborated on a list of demands and "submitted that this was the sum they should demand from the Carthaginians"<ref name=DEMAND> Appian, The History of Rome: The Sicilian Wars, 2.7; Diodorus, 25.6'1; Polybius, 1:66.10-67.12; Walbank, 567. </ref>. When Hanno the Great met with officers from the mercenary companies, he rejected their demands, claiming that Carthage could not possibly pay such an exhorbitant sum due to her post-war indemnities to Rome<ref name=REJECT>Polybius, 1:67.1-67.2.</ref>.
The mercenaries were angered at the rejection of their demands, and were mistrustful of Hanno, much preferring to deal with the commanders they had served under in Sicily (such as Hamilcar) who had seen their worth and furthermore made promises to them. Unsurprisingly, due to the mistrust and difficulties in communication (the mercenaries were from many different nations, speaking many different languages), the negotiations quickly broke down. A force of mercenaries, about 20,000 strong, armed themselves and marched towards Carthage, seizing the town of Tunis some 21 km from Carthage<ref name=TUNIS>Polybius, 1:67.3-67.13.</ref>.
Realizing their error in letting such a large foreign army gather in the first place, and also realizing that they had released the family and belongings of the mercenaries as well and thus had given up a bargaining position, the Carthaginian government had no choice but to capitulate to the mercenary demands<ref>Polybius, 1:68.1-68.3.</ref>.
Not willing to deal with Hanno again, and feeling insulted by Hamilcar for not having met with them in the first round of negotiations, the mercenaries agreed to negotiate with Gesco. Given their newly strengthed bargaining position, the mercenaries vastly inflated their original demands, even requiring the extension of the payments to the Libyans whom Carthage had conscripted (and who were not mercenaries) as well as other Numidians and to the escaped slaves and the like who had joined their ranks against Carthage. Once again Carthage had no choice but to agree.<ref>Appian, The History of Rome: The Sicilian Wars, 2.7; Polybius, 1:68.4-68.13.</ref>.
Course of the War
Despite the more generous settlement, two mercenaries, Spendius and Matho, organized a rebellion, based on speculation that after the foreigners left Africa, Carthage would be unwilling, or simply unable, to pay those remaining. In 240 BC Gesco and other officials were taken prisoner by the mercenary leadership and open warfare ensued.
The Libyan population, discontent with Carthaginian rule, supported the rebels. Carthage still had some mercenaries quartered in Tunis, and was also able to deploy the mercenaries still in Sicily and to hire fresh troops. Initially neither side had any clear advantage, and a mercenary siege of Utica, the largest Carthaginian city after Carthage itself, resulted in the Battle of the Bagradas River which ended with a Carthaginian victory. The conflict escalated when the mercenary leadership tortured and killed its Carthaginian prisoners and in response the Carthaginians committed similar actions. These atrocities were intended to prevent any possibility of a negotiated settlement.
Hamilcar Barca, general from the campaigns in Sicily, was given supreme command, and eventually defeated the rebels in 237 BC, but the conduct of the war was barbaric even by the standards of the time. Polybius called it a "truceless war", without any concept of rules of warfare and exceeding all other conflicts in cruelty, ending only with the total annihilation of one of the opponents.
Relations with Rome
Initially, a smaller mercenary revolt occurred on Sardinia, and the rebels took control of the island. When the conflict in Africa turned in favor of Carthage, the Sardinian rebels appealed to Rome for protection. However, it was in Rome's self-interest for Carthage to achieve stability and to recover economically so it could continue paying the indemnities imposed after the First Punic War. Rome rejected the appeal, and indirectly supported its former adversary by releasing Carthaginian prisoners and prohibiting trade with the mercenaries. Nevertheless, in 238 BC-237 BC, Rome annexed Sardinia on the pretext that the Carthaginian navy had been preying on Roman shipping; this claim was probably a baseless excuse for expanding Roman influence in the Mediterranean Sea by seizing an island located in a strategic position. Weakened by both the First Punic War and the Mercenary War, Carthage surrendered Sardinia and agreed to pay a further indemnity.
The seizure of Sardinia and the outrageous extra indemnity fueled resentment in Carthage. The loss of Sardinia also encouraged Hamilcar, together with his son-in-law Hasdrubal and his son Hannibal to establish a power base in Hispania, outside Rome's sphere of influence, which later became the source of wealth and manpower for Hannibal's initial campaigns in the Second Punic War.
Chronology of the War
- The First Punic War ends with the signing of terms between Carthage and Rome
- Hamilcar Barca resigns his Sicilian command.
- A mercenary army of some 20,000 is transported from Sicily to Carthage, by Gresco.
- Mercenaries gather near Carthage, and are persuaded to withdraw to Sicca Veneria.
- The mercenaries submit a demand to Hanno the Great for payment of their contracts.
- Hanno attempts, unsuccessfully, to convince the mercenaries to accept less payment due to Carthage's impoverished post-war conditions.
- Negotiations break down. The mercenaries take up arms, march on Tunis, occupy it, and threaten Carthage directly.
- Given their position, the mercenaries inflate their demands and demand payment for the non-mercenary Libyan conscripts in the army as well. The Carthaginian government capitulates to all demands.
- Gesco negotiates successfully with the mercenaries at Tunis<ref>
Polybius 1:68.13-69.3. </ref>. 240 BC
- Fearing personal legal penalties under the Romans and Carthaginians, Spendius and Mathus raise dissent among the Libyan conscipts, and are appointed generals<ref>Polybius 1:69.1-69.14</ref>.
- The mercenaries capture Gesco, starting the Mercenary War<ref>Polybius 1:70.1-71.7, 1:88.7, and 3:9.6-9.10; Diodorus, 25.2'1-2, 6'1; Livy, 21.2; Appian, History of the Sicilian Wars, 2.9</ref>.
- Hanno the Great is given command of the Carthaginian forces <ref>Polybius, 1:73</ref>.
- The mercenaries defeat the Carthaginian armies under Hanno the Great at the Battle of Utica<ref>Polybius, 1:74</ref>.
- The mercenaries capture Sardinia<ref>Polybius, 1:79.1-79.7; Pausanias, 17.9; Walbank, 567</ref>.
- Carthage awards to Hamilcar Barca joint command with Hanno<ref>Nepos 21:2.1-2.3; Polybius 1:75.1-75.2</ref>.
- Hamilcar's armies defeat the mercenaries at the Battle of the Bagradas River<ref>Polybius, 1:75.3-76.11; Walbank, 567</ref>.
- Numidian mercenary leader Naravas defects to Hamilcar<ref>Polybius, 1:78.1-78.9</ref>.
- With the Numidian reinforcements (about 2,000 men), Hamilcar engages the mercenaries again, and again defeats them<ref>Polybius, 1:78.10-78.11</ref>.
- Hamilcar pardons his captured prisoners, accepting into his army anyone who will fight for Carthage, and exiling any who will not<ref>Polybius, 1:78.13.</ref>.
- Concerned that Hamilcar's leniency will encourge others to defect, Mathos and Spendius order the mutilation and execution of "about seven hundred" Carthaginian prisoners, including Gesco. With the mercenaries jointly guilty of atrocities, defectors dare not face Carthaginian justice under Hamilcar<ref>Polybius, 1:79.8-81.11.</ref>.
- Hamilcar appointed sole commander of the Carthaginian armies<ref>Polybius, 1:82.1-82.7;
Diodorus, 25.3'1.</ref>.
- Utica revolts, attempting to succeed from Carthage<ref>Polybius, 1:82.8-82.13;
Diodorus, 25.3'2.</ref>.
- Carthage appeals to Hiero of Syracuse for aid against the mercenaries<ref>Polybius, 1:83.1-83.4.</ref>.
- Carthage appeals to Rome for aid against the mercenaries<ref>Polybius, 1:83.5-83.11, and
3:28.3; Nepos, 22:2.3; Livy, History of Rome, 21.41]; Appian, History of Rome: The Sicilian Wars 2.10, History of Rome: The Punic Wars 5'a; Walbank, 671; .</ref>.
- The mercenaries reject the effors of the Roman mediators<ref>Appian, History of Rome: The Sicilian Wars 2.11, History of Rome: The Punic Wars 5'b;
Zonas, 17.g-17.h.</ref>. 238 BC
- incomplete
Mercenary War in Literature and Popular Culture
Salammbô is a novel by Gustave Flaubert set before and during the revolt. A number of other works are based on Flaubert's novel.
Bibliography/Sources
A note on the sources
Finding historical sources for The Mercenary War suffers from the same problem as any history of Carthage: We don't have any of the primary sources of Carthaginian history. The main extant account of the Mercenary War is that of Polybius, a Greek historian writing many years after the events portrayed here. While it is likely that he based much of his account on now-lost works of prior Greek and Roman historians, it is unlikely that they had an unbiased view of Carthage and its history. When reading such history it is wise to take this into account. We have the best historical reconstruction that we can derive, but we must also remember that its validity is in question.
Modern
Ancient
- Appian, History of Rome: The Sicilian Wars.
- Appian, History of Rome: The Punic Wars.
- Siculus, Diodorus, Universal History.
- Livy (Livius, Titus), History of Rome.
- Livy (Livius, Titus), Perioche.
- Nepos, Cornelius, Lives of Eminent Commanders.
- Pausanias, Description of Greece.
- Polybius, The Histories.
- Zonaras, Joannes, Epitome Historiarum (chiefly the epitome of the writings of Cassius Dio).
- Naevius, "Bellum Punicum", published in Remains of Old Latin, Vol. 2, Loeb.