Embalming
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Embalming, in most modern cultures, is the art and science used to temporarily preserve human remains to forestall decomposition and make it suitable for display at a funeral. It has a long history, and some cultures had embalming processes that had great religious meaning.
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History of embalming
Embalming has been practiced in many cultures and is one of the earliest surgical procedures humanity undertook. In classical antiquity, perhaps the Old World culture that had developed embalming to the greatest extent was that of ancient Egypt, who developed the process of mummification. They believed that preservation of the mummy empowered the soul after death, which would return to the preserved corpse.
Other cultures that had developed embalming processes include the Incas and other cultures of Peru, whose climate also favoured a form of mummification.
Embalming in Europe had a much more sporadic existence. It was attempted from time to time, especially during the Crusades, when crusading noblemen wished to have their bodies preserved for burial closer to home. Embalming began to creep back into practise in parallel with the anatomists of the Renaissance who needed to be able to preserve their specimens.
Contemporary embalming methods advanced markedly during the American Civil War, which once again involved many servicemen dying far from home, and their families wishing them returned for local burial. Dr. Thomas N. Holmes received a commission from the Army Medical Corps to embalm the corpses of dead Union officers to return to their families. Military authorities also permitted private embalmers to work in military-controlled areas. The passage of Abraham Lincoln's body home for burial was made possible by his embalming and it brought the possibilites and potential of embalming to a wider public notice.
In 1867, the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann discovered formaldehyde, whose preservative properties were soon discovered and which became the foundation for modern methods of embalming.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries arsenic was frequently used as an embalming fluid but has since been supplanted by other more effective and less toxic chemicals. There were questions about the possibility of arsenic from embalmed bodies later contaminating ground water supplies. There were also legal concerns as people suspected of murder by arsenic poisoning could claim that the levels of poison in the deceased's body were a result of embalming post mortem rather than evidence of homicide.
It is important to differentiate embalming from taxidermy. Embalming actually preserves the intact human body while taxidermy is a recreation of an animal's form using only the creature's skin.
Modern embalming
Image:Lenin's body.jpg Embalming as practiced in the funeral homes of the Western World uses several steps. Modern embalming techniques are not the result of a single practitioner, but rather the accumulation of many decades, even centuries, of research, trial and error and invention. A standardized version follows below but variation on techniques is very common.
The first thing an embalmer should do is verify the identity of the deceased (normally via wrist or leg tags) and perform basic tests for signs of death, such as clouded-over corneas, lividity, and rigor mortis. While people awakening on the mortuary table is largely the province of horror fiction and urban myth, testing for death is still a final additional precaution. Any clothing on the corpse is removed and set aside; jewelry, also, is inventoried. A modesty cloth is then placed over the deceased's genitalia for dignity. Following this the corpse is washed in disinfecting and germicidal solutions, shaved, and groomed. The embalmer bends, flexes and massages the arms and legs to relieve rigor mortis. The eyes are closed and kept closed with an eyecap that keeps them shut and in the proper expression. The mouth may be closed via suturing with a needle and ligature, using an adhesive, wire or a needle injector, a specialised device most commonly utilised in North America and unique to mortuary practise. Care is taken to make the expression look as relaxed and natural as possible and ideally a recent photograph of the deceased while still living is used as a template. The process of closing the mouth, eyes, shaving etc is collectively known as setting the features.
The actual embalming process usually involves four parts:
- arterial embalming, which involves the injection of embalming chemicals into the blood vessels, usually via the right common carotid artery. Blood is drained from the right jugular vein. The embalming solution is injected using an embalming machine and the embalmer massages the corpse to ensure a proper distribution of the embalming fluid. In case of poor circulation, other injection points are used;
- cavity embalming, the suction of the internal fluids of the corpse and the injection of embalming chemicals into body cavities, using an aspirator and trocar. The embalmer makes a small incision just above the navel and pushes the trocar in the chest and stomach cavities to puncture the hollow organs and aspirate their contents. He then fills the cavities with concentrated chemicals. The incision is either sutured closed or a "trocar button" is screwed into place.
- hypodermic embalming, the injection of embalming chemicals under the skin as needed; and
- surface embalming, which supplements the other methods, especially for visible, injured body parts.
Most good embalmings are completed in two or three hours, although an easy case may take less and complicated cases can take days.
After the deceased is rewashed and dried, cosmetics are then applied to make it appear more lifelike and to create a "memory picture" for the deceased's friends and relatives. In the United States and Philippines a baby powder is put on the corpse to give it a good fragrance. It will be put on the face for a smooth finish. For some babies who have died, the embalmer applies baby powder on the body. It makes them smell like a baby and removes the odor of general sweat and that of the reproductive organs. An oily foundation is placed on the visible areas of the skin, and theatrical or mortuary cosmetics are placed on the corpse. A lipstick is applied on the corpse lips to mimick the natural color of lips. Pale or pink lipstick is applied on males, while red lipstick is applied to females. Hair Gels or Hair Oil is applied to style the hair, especially for deceased who are male. Mortuary cosmetizing is not done for the same reason as make-up for living people; rather, it is designed to add depth and dimension to a person's features that the lack of blood circulation removes. Warm areas, where blood vessels in living people are superficial, such as the cheeks, chin and knuckles have subtle reds added to recreate this effect, while browns are added to the palpabrae (eyelids) to add depth, especially important as viewing in a coffin creates an unusual perspective rarely seen in everyday life.
A photograph of the dead person in good health is often sought in order to guide the embalmer's hand in restoring the corpse to a more lifelike appearance. Blemishes and discolorations (such as bruises, in which the discolouration is not in the circulatory system and cannot be removed by arterial injection) occasioned by the last illness, the settling of blood, or the embalming process itself are also dealt with at this time. Various funeral homes have different practices as to whether the corpse will be clothed during the time of application of the cosmetics, or whether the cosmetics will be applied first and the corpse clothed afterwards.
The foregoing describes the usual process for "cosmetic" embalming, wherein long-term preservation is not the goal; rather the natural appearance of the body is paramount.
As for clothing the body, tradition has been for the decedant to wear semi-formal clothing (a suit jacket and tie for men; a dress for women). In more recent years, the family often chooses to dress the decedant in more casual wear (such as a T-shirt and blue jeans), especially if the deceased was young. If a person is a member of the clergy of some religions, the person is often buried in religious vestments; as well, a member of the military, a police officer or firefighter is often dressed in his/her uniform.
In many areas of Europe, the custom of dressing the body in an especially designed shroud rather than in clothing used by the living is preferred.
After the corpse has been dressed, it is placed in the casket (it is called a coffin when the container is hexagonal in shape) for the various funeral rites. It is common for photographs, notes, cards and favourite personal items to be placed in the casket with the deceased. Even bulky and expensive items, such as electric guitars, are occasionally interred with a body. In some ways this mirrors the ancient practise of placing grave goods with a person for the afterlife. In traditional Chinese culture paper substitutes of the goods are cremated with the deceased instead and Hell Bank Notes specifically purchased for the occasion.
Embalming chemicals
Specialist embalming
Decomposing bodies, trauma cases, frozen and drowned bodies, and those to be transported for long distances also require special treatment beyond that for the "normal" case. The recreation of bodies and features damaged by accident or disease is commonly called restorative art and is a sub-speciality inside embalming, although all qualified embalmers have some degree of training and practise in it. It is on these cases that the benefit of embalming is startlingly apparent. However many people have unreal expectation of what a dead body should look like due to seeing many "dead" bodies on television shows and unreasonably expect a body two weeks decomposed or having crashed in an aeroplane from 30,000 feet to look as they did in life. Ironically the work of a skilled embalmer often results in the deceased appearing natural enough that the embalmer appears to have done nothing at all.
Embalming autopsy cases differs from standard embalming as the nature of the post mortem irrevocably disrupts the circulatory system with the removal of organs for examination. In these cases a six point injection is made via the two femoral arteries, axillary vessels and common carotids, with the viscera treated separately with cavity fluid in a viscera bag. In many mortuaries in the United States (such as the Los Angeles County Coroners Office) and New Zealand these necessary vessels are carefully preserved in the autopsy process while in other countries such as Australia, where embalming has been less common historically, they are routinely excised. This lead to an inability to properly embalm the deceased for the family and is a common source of conflict between government pathologists and embalmers there.
Long-term preservation requires different techniques, such as using stronger preservative chemicals, multiple injection sites to ensure thorough saturation of body tissues, and--in the case of a body to be used for anatomical dissection--taking no blood drainage and doing no separate cavity treatment of the internal organs.
It should be remembered that embalming is only meant to temporarily preserve the body of a deceased person. Regardless of whether or not embalming is performed, the type of burial or entombment, and the materials used - such as wood or metal caskets and vaults - the body of the deceased will eventually decompose. Modern embalming is done to delay decomposition so that funeral services may take place.
Embalming and different religions
There is much difference of opinion amongst different faiths as to the permissibility of embalming. A brief overview of some of the larger faiths positions are examined below
- All of the major branches of the Christian faith, including Catholic denominations and members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, allow embalming, with the exception of Eastern Orthodoxy, which only allows embalming if required by law or other necessity.
- Many authorities hold Hinduism does not accept embalming. In practice, this is not an adamant prohibition and embalmings for those of Hindu faith are known to happen, generally for repatriation to India or the South Pacific and for the purposes of viewing and funerary rites at the family home.
- People of Bahá'í Faith are not embalmed. The body is instead washed, and then placed in a shroud of white clothes (silk preferably). The body must be buried in a cemetery that is no more than one hour's travel from the place of death.
- Zoroastrians traditionally hold a type of sky burial within structures known as Towers of Silence in which the body is exposed to weathering and predation to dispose of the remains, and thus embalming the body is contrary to their funeral designs. This is due to the Zoroastrian belief that the dead body is unclean and the pure elements of earth and fire should not be allowed to come into contact with it. This practice is not universally performed anymore, and many Iranian Zoroastrians perform traditional cremations and burials instead.
- Muslims are required to be buried within 24 hours of death if possible. Embalming is forbidden. The body is still washed and prepared specifically for interment.
- Traditional Jewish law generally forbids embalming, and burial is to be done as soon as possible - preferably within 24 hours. However, under certain circumstances, embalming may be permitted if it is impossible to bury a person immediately (such as a crime victim), or to permit the deceased to be buried in Israel. Guidance of a Rabbi or the local chevra kadisha (Jewish Burial Society) should be sought regarding any questions, as particular circumstances may justify leniencies. Notably the Biblical Joseph was embalmed (Genesis 50:26).
Embalming in popular culture
- The television show Six Feet Under, set in a funeral home, has brought embalming and funeral practise back into the public eye and is noted for its reality and dark humour. The character Hector Federico "Rico" Diaz is a full-time embalmer employed by the funeral parlour in the show.
- The reality TV show Family Plots, shown on the A&E Network, often gives viewers a behind-the-scenes look into the embalming room. The embalmer, Shonna Smith (nee Wissmiller), has become a minor celebrity known for her sarcasm and chutzpah when dealing with her eccentric family.
- In the episode of the cartoon South Park entitled Pinkeye Kenny is transformed into a zombie when worcestershire sauce is used as embalming fluid.
- Many horror films dealing with animate mummies focus on gruesome aspect of Ancient Egyptian embalming practises, frequently having them embalmed alive as punishment for some transgression.
- In the end of the Vincent Price film The Abominable Dr. Phibes the central villain rather ludicrously embalms himself to be forever with his dead wife in the final sequence. This does not stop his resurrection for the sequel.
- There is a horror movie titled The Embalmer whose movie posters read "...beauty after beauty dragged to a sunken crypt...petrified play-captives of THE EMBALMER".
- In the film Kissed the lead female character is a necrophiliac who is training to become an embalmer.
- It was rumoured that after her death Diana, Princess of Wales was hastily embalmed to cloud tests that she may have been pregnant. However if this were the case an autopsy would still have easily been able to determine such an obvious condition and the rumour is just urban myth.
- Contrary to media reports John Paul II (pope 1978-2005) was not embalmed before lying in state and photographs of him clearly show the blotchiness and discolouration that is characteristic of lividity and the early stages of decomposition. Paul VI (pope 1963-1978) decomposed at his lying in state, prompting Vatican officials to install fans around the body to disperse the odour. Pius XII's (pope 1939-1958) botched embalming led to his body turning black and disintegrating in the coffin. Several Swiss Guards stationed around Pius XII's body passed out due to the body's noxious odour.
- In contrast murdered civil rights activist Medgar Evers was so well embalmed it allowed for a viable autopsy to be performed on his corpse decades after his death and this helped secure the conviction of his killer.
- Easily the most famous embalmed body of the 20th century is Lenin, who continues to draw crowds to see him decades after his death.
- Eva Perón ("Evita") was embalmed at the request of her husband, Argentine President Juan Perón, in order to make a Lenin-like shrine to her memory. A coup d'état toppled Perón, and his plan did not come to fruition. Sixteen years after her death, Eva Perón's body was exhumed and found to be in perfect condition, leading some sectors of Argentine society to call for her canonization.
- The Netherlands where arterial embalming begain in the 17th century. Embalming is no longer allowed except in the case of international transport of the corpse and in the case of members of the royal family, who choose individually for or against it.
- Plastination makes it possible to preserve individual tissues and organs that have been removed from the body of the deceased as well as the entire body itself. It is not achieved via arterial injection like embalming but by a much longer and more complicated process. Water and fat in tissue are replaced with silicone in a process which, for most specimens, takes about one month. Preserved tissue is first dissected and then dehydrated with acetone. It is immersed in a silicone bath under vacuum until the replacement of acetone is completed. After plastination, the resulting tissue is safe to handle (i.e., toxic fixatives are eliminated), the tissue has no odor, is extremely durable and intact even to the microscopic level. Thus, the anatomical specimens are safer to use, more pleasant to use, and are much more durable and have a much longer period of use. Plastination is not used for funerals due to time, cost and feasibility restraints.
References
- Frederick, L.G. & Strub, Clarence. The Principles and Practice of Embalming (Fifth Edition) Professional Training Schools Inc & Robertine Frederick. 1989
- Mayer, Robert G. Embalming: History, Theory and Practice. Appleton & Lange. 1990da:Balsamering
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