Eucharistic theologies contrasted

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Ecclesial communities contrasted in relation to Eucharistic theology:

Contents

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Orthodox Christianity

  • the Eucharistic mystery bears an objective, Real Presence, par excellence.
  • the Church's spiritual sacrifice of praise and the sacrifice of Christ in a mystical way are somehow one during this action of great offering and sacred love-feast.
  • primary theological development from early Church Fathers, esp. the Eastern Fathers
  • Eucharistic theology: The bread and wine truly are the Body and Blood of Christ, but the mechanics are not explored; stops short of the doctrine of Transubstantiation; interprets John 6 as well as 1 Corinthians 11 as applying to the Eucharist. Through the Holy Spirit's action, that which gives meaning to the bread and wine are changed by the mystery, and that which gives meaning to the partakers is changed by the mystery, and the partakers of the elements are commissioned by the mystery to live out the mystery in the world.
  • the Divine Liturgy is never celebrated in private, as it is considered necessarily communal; there must be at least two or three people to receive Holy Communion.
  • Generally closed communion, as determined by each bishop.
  • Frequency: generally celebrated at least weekly and on "great feasts" and on Pascha, but in some places holy communion is only taken as little as four times per year. Members are encouraged to participate as often as it is offered, provided they are properly prepared through prayer, fasting, and recent confession.
  • see Cappadocian Fathers, John Chrysostom, Ignatius of Antioch, Simeon Metaphrastes
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Roman Catholic Church

  • The Eucharist is a sacrifice in that it re-presents (makes present) the sacrifice of the cross.<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1366</ref> The sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Eucharist are one single sacrifice.<ref>ibid., 1367</ref>
  • Christ is really (not just in sign or symbol), truly (not just subjectively or metaphorically) and substantially (not just in his power) present in the Eucharist.
  • Because the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist is indeed real, not merely figurative or virtual, Eucharistic adoration is practised.
  • Theological development: Saint Justin Martyr, the first writer to describe the celebration in Rome of the Eucharist, Saint Augustine of Hippo<ref>Augustine, De civitate Dei, 10, 6 (CSEL 40/1, 456)</ref>, Saint Thomas Aquinas, the Council of Trent.
  • Transubstantiation as an expression of what is changed when the bread and wine are consecrated, not an explanation of the means or mode by which the Real Presence is effected, since "[t]he signs of bread and wine become, in a way surpassing understanding, the Body and Blood of Christ."<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1333</ref>
  • Closed communion, with relaxation of the rule in certain defined circumstances.
  • Frequency: When, in medieval times, deep respect for the sacrament led to very infrequent reception of Holy Communion, a minimum frequency of once a year (at Easter time) was mandated. In the twentieth century, at the urging of Pope Pius X, reception of Holy Communion at almost every Eucharistic liturgy attended became normal for most Catholics. Conditions are freedom from unconfessed mortal sin and observance of the rules of fasting. Priests normally celebrate the Eucharist daily, but are not obliged to. The rules of freedom from unconfessed mortal sin and of Eucharistic fast apply also to celebration of the Eucharist by a priest.
  • Mass celebrated without the people: unless they have a serious reason, priests may not celebrate Mass without the assistance of at least one other person.
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Lutherans and Moravians

Why then should we not much more say in the Supper, "This is my body," even though bread and body are two distinct substances, and the word "this" indicates the bread? Here, too, out of two kinds of objects a union has taken place, which I shall call a "sacramental union," because Christ’s body and the bread are given to us as a sacrament. This is not a natural or personal union, as is the case with God and Christ. It is also perhaps a different union from that which the dove has with the Holy Spirit, and the flame with the angel, but it is also assuredly a sacramental union<cite> (WA 26, 442; LW 37, 299-300).
  • Body and Blood are "in, with, and under the forms" of bread and wine:
<cite>For the reason why, in addition to the expressions of Christ and St. Paul (the bread in the Supper is the body of Christ or the communion of the body of Christ), also the forms: under the bread, with the bread, in the bread [the body of Christ is present and offered], are employed, is that by means of them the papistical transubstantiation may be rejected and the sacramental union of the unchanged essence of the bread and of the body of Christ indicated<cite> (FC SD VII, 35; Triglot Concordia, 983; emphasis added). Lutherans do not seek to explain the change, and reject the designation of their doctrine as consubstantiation in contradistinction to the transubstantiation of the Roman Catholic Church, which they also reject (see also, Smalcald Articles[1]).
  • Lutherans do not believe that the eucharistic sacrifice (sacrifice of praise) of the Lord's Supper is propitiatory or that it "repeats" or "re-presents" Christ's sacrifice on the cross.
  • see Martin Luther, Philipp Melanchthon, Book of Concord
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Anglicans and Episcopalians

  • There is a divergence of opinion over eucharistic theology which broadly corresponds to the lines of churchmanship within Anglicanism. Transubstantiation, Real (Bodily) Presence, (Calvinistic) Spiritual Presence and (Zwinglian) Dynamic Memorialism are all represented. Which of these four views represents "authentic" Anglican eucharistic theology depends on wider theological and ecclesiological understandings of Anglicanism, in particular the role of pre-Reformation "catholic" doctrine and practices vis-à-vis Reformational theology in interpreting the Book of Common Prayer and the 39 Articles (the Anglican Reformation formularies).
  • High Church Anglicans tend to believe in the Real (Bodily) Presence. A minority of Anglo-Catholics adhere to transubstantiation (despite its apparent denunciation in Article 28 of the 39 Articles); the majority of High Church Anglicans do not and are content simply to let the mystery of the metousiosis remain a mystery. In practice, High Church parishes tend to celebrate the Eucharist weekly (or more frequently) and prefer the term "Eucharist" or even "Mass". Reservation and adoration of the sacrament are common practice among many High Anglicans.
  • Low Church Anglicans, on the other hand, tend to reject belief in the Real (Bodily) Presence as well as reservation and adoration of the sacrament and adopt a Calvinistic (Spiritual Presence) or Zwinglian (Dynamic Memorialism) view of the Eucharist, resembling views held by other Protestant denominations such as Presbyterians and Baptists. Low Church parishes tend to celebrate the Eucharist less frequently (eg monthly, but this varies from place to place) and prefer the terms "Holy Communion" or "Lord's Supper".
  • Between the High and Low Church positions lies the view that Anglicanism (as a Broad Church) permits a range of theological views, each of which (with the possible exception of the Roman Catholic notion of transubtantiation) is an equally welcome expression of eucharistic theology within the Anglican context.
  • see Book of Common Prayer, 39 Articles, Thomas Cranmer, Churchmanship
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Methodist

  • primary theological development from John Wesley & Charles Wesley, 18th century
  • Eucharist commonly celebrated on Sundays, but never without a congregation.
  • Eucharistic theology: "Jesus Christ...is truly present in Holy Communion...The divine presence is a living reality and can be experienced by participants; it is not a remembrance of the Last Supper and the Crucifixion only." (from This Holy Mystery), i.e., Real Presence.
  • see John Wesley, Open communion, This Holy Mystery
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Calvinist (Presbyterian and Reformed)

  • primary theological development from John Calvin, 16th century
  • Eucharistic theology: historically, real spiritual presence, i.e., pneumatic presence.
  • Reformed theology has taught that Jesus' body is seated in heaven at the right hand of God and therefore is not present in the elements nor do the elements turn into his body. When the eucharist is received, however, not only the spirit, but also the true body and blood of Jesus Christ (hence "real") are received in a pneumatic (ghostly) sense, but these are only received by those partakers who eat worthily (i.e., repentantly) with faith. The Holy Spirit unites the Christian with Jesus though they are separated by a great distance.
  • See, e.g., Westminster Confession of Faith, ch. 19; Belgic Confession, Article 35; open communion.
  • Theology in this tradition is in flux, and recent agreements, especially A Formula for Agreement, between these denominations and the Lutherans have stressed that: "The theological diversity within our common confession provides both the complementarity needed for a full and adequate witness to the gospel (mutual affirmation) and the corrective reminder that every theological approach is a partial and incomplete witness to the Gospel (mutual admonition) (A Common Calling, page 66)." Hence, in seeking to come to consensus about the Real Presence, the churches have written:
"During the Reformation both Reformed and Lutheran Churches exhibited an evangelical intention when they understood the Lord's Supper in the light of the saving act of God in Christ. Despite this common intention, different terms and concepts were employed which. . . led to mutual misunderstanding and misrepresentation. Properly interpreted, the differing terms and concepts were often complementary rather than contradictory (Marburg Revisited, pp. 103-104);"
and further:
"In the Lord's Supper the risen Christ imparts himself in body and blood, given up for all, through his word of promise with bread and wine....we proclaim the death of Christ through which God has reconciled the world with himself. We proclaim the presence of the risen Lord in our midst. Rejoicing that the Lord has come to us, we await his future coming in glory....Both of our communions, we maintain, need to grow in appreciation of our diverse eucharistic traditions, finding mutual enrichment in them. At the same time both need to grow toward a further deepening of our common experience and expression of the mystery of our Lord's Supper (A Formula for Agreement)."
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Baptist and other related Evangelicals

  • primary theological development from 16th & 17th centuries
  • Eucharistic theology: Memorialism
  • "The bread and cup that symbolize the broken body and shed blood offered by Christ remind us today of God's great love for us..." [2]
  • see Huldrych Zwingli, open communion
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Quaker

  • primary theological development from 17th century
  • Eucharistic theology: suspension/Memorialism
  • "The bread and wine remind us of Jesus' body and blood." [3]
  • see George Fox
  • Quakers understand all of life as being sacramental and thus do not practice baptism or holy communion. "We believe in the baptism of the Holy Spirit and in communion with that Spirit. If the believer experiences such spiritual baptism and communion, then no rite or ritual is necessary. ...The Quaker ideal is to make every meal at every table a Lord's Supper." [4]


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