Seismometer

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Seismometer (in Greek seismos = earthquake and metero = measure) are used by seismologists to measure and record seismic waves. By studying seismic waves, geologists can map the interior of the Earth, and measure and locate earthquakes and other ground motions. The term seismograph is usually interchangeable, but seismometer seems to be a more common usage.

The seismometer was first invented by Zhang Heng in China in 132AD. Later John Milne invented the horizontal pendulum seismograph at the Imperial College of Engineering in Japan in 1880. This marked the beginning of modern seismology.

Image:Strong motion K2 seismometer.jpg

1 Basic principles
2 An early example
- 2.1 Early Designs
3 Improved designs
4 Modern instruments
5 See also
6 External links

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Basic principles

Seismometers have:

A frame securely affixed to the earth. The foundation is critical, and often the most expensive part of a seismic station.
An inertial mass suspended in the frame by some method, using springs or gravity to establish a steady-state reference position.
A damper system to prevent long term oscillations in response to an event.
A means of recording the motion or force of the mass relative to the frame.

Passing seismic waves move the frame, while the mass tends to stay in a fixed position due to its inertia. The seismometer measures the relative motion between the frame and the suspended mass.

Early seismometers used optics, or motion-amplifying mechanical linkages. The motion was recorded as scratches on smoked glass, or exposures of light beams on photographic paper.

Modern instruments use electronics. Usually, the proof mass is held motionless by an electronic negative feedback loop that drives a coil. The distance moved, speed and acceleration of the mass are directly measured. The measurements are often digitized and stored using a computer, and then are sometimes automatically interpreted by computer programs to locate earthquakes.[1]

A cruder system is used for geologic surveys: The geophones in surveys just have a heavy magnet suspended in a coil. When the ground shakes, the frame and coil move, while the heavy magnet stays. The magnet's field therefore cuts the coil and induces a measureable electric current in the coil.

Professional seismic observatories usually have instruments measuring three axes, north-south, east-west, and up-down. Seismologists generally prefer a vertical seismograph if only one instrument is available.

A professional station is sometimes mounted on bedrock with an uncracked connection to a continental plate. The best mountings may be in deep boreholes, which avoid thermal effects, ground noise and tilting from weather and tides. Amateur, or less exotic instruments are often mounted in insulated enclosures on small buried piers of unreinforced concrete. Reinforcing rods and aggregates would distort the pier as the temperature changes. A site should always be surveyed for ground noise with a temporary installation before pouring the pier and laying conduit.

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An early example

The principle can be shown by an early special purpose seismometer. This consisted of a large stationary pendulum, with a stylus on the bottom. As the earth starts to move, the heavy mass of the pendulum has the inertia to stay still in the non-earth frame of reference. The result is that the stylus scratches a pattern corresponding with the earth's movement. This type of strong motion seismometer recorded upon a smoked glass (glass with carbon soot). While not sensitive enough to detect distant earthquakes, this instrument could indicate the direction of the initial pressure waves and thus help find the epicenter of a local earthquake — such instruments were useful in the analysis of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Further re-analysis was performed in the 1980s using these early recordings, enabling a more precice determination of the initial fault break location in Marin county and its subsequent progression, mostly to the south.

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Early Designs

After 1880, most seismometers were descended from those developed by the team of John Milne, James Alfred Ewing and Thomas Gray, who worked together in Japan from 1880-1895. These seismometers used damped horizontal pendulums. Later, after World War II, these were adapted into the widely-used Press-Ewing seismometer.

Later, professional suites of instruments for the world-wide standard seismographic network had one set of instruments tuned to oscillate at fifteen seconds, and the other at ninety seconds, each set measuring in three directions. Amateurs or observatories with limited means tuned their smaller, less sensitive instruments to ten seconds.

The basic damped horizontal pendulum seismometer swings like the gate of a fence. A heavy weight is mounted on the point of a long (from 10 cm to several meters) triangle, hinged at its vertical edge. As the ground moves, the weight stays unmoving, swinging the "gate" on the hinge.

The advantage of a horizontal pendulum is that it achieves very low frequencies of oscillation in a compact instrument. The "gate" is slightly tilted, so the weight tends to slowly return to a central position. The pendulum is adjusted (before the damping is installed) to oscillate once per three seconds, or once per thirty seconds. The general-purpose instruments of small stations or amateurs usually oscillate once per ten seconds. A pan of oil is placed under the arm, and a small sheet of metal mounted on the underside of the arm drags in the oil to damp oscillations. The level of oil, position on the arm, and angle and size of sheet is adjusted until the damping is "critical," that is, almost having oscillation. The hinge is very low friction, often torsion wires, so the only friction is the internal friction of the wire. Small seismographs with low proof masses are placed in a vacuum to reduce disturbances from air currents.

Zollner described torsionally-suspended horizontal pendulums as early as 1869, but developed them for gravimetry rather than seismometry.

Early seismometers had an arrangement of levers on jeweled bearings, to scratch smoked glass or paper. Later, mirrors reflected a light beam to a direct-recording plate or roll of photographic paper. Briefly, some designs returned to mechanical movements to save money. In mid-twentieth-century systems, the light was reflected to a pair of differential electronic photosensors. The recording device in most such machines was paper on a slowly-turning drum.

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Improved designs

In 1894, Milne invented a basic, undamped horizontal-pendulum seismometer with a continuous photographic record. He successfully advocated a system of seismic stations, and the British adopted his seismograph for them.

In 1895, von Rebeur Paschwitz in Germany used a tiny, 42 g horizontal pendulum with optic recording to record the first-ever confirmed Japanese earthquake to be recorded in Germany.

The expense and fuzziness of photographic seismographs reduced their utility. In 1904 Wiechert of Gottingen, Germany put a 1000 kg mass atop a vertical pendulum and held it upright with weak springs. This gave excellent sensitivity, and permitted a mechanical seismograph with jeweled bearings and conventional paper records to receive distant earthquakes. The inverted pendulum significantly reduces the pendulum length required for a suitably low frequency. This reduces the overall size of the instrument.

In 1906, Galitizine produced the first electromagnetic seismograph. A pendulum with a magnet induced current in a coil which then drove a galvanometer.

The Omori seismograph used Zollner's suspension on Milne's horizontal pendulum (Omori was a pupil and colleague of Milne in Japan). It was the prototype of the Bosch-Omori seismograph used worldwide in the early 20th century. It uses two torsion wires or (for the vertical seismometer) a pair of springs for its hinge. Basically, one wire pulls down on the side away from the mass, while another pulls up on the side toward the mass. Bosch added damping that Omori omitted.

In 1932 Lucien LaCoste invented the zero-length spring. A zero-length spring has a physical length equal to its stretched length. Its force is proportional to its entire length, not just the stretched length, and is therefore constant over a range of flexures (that is, it does not follow Hooke's Law). Theoretically, a pendulum using such a spring can have an infinite natural period. Long-period pendulums enable seismometers to sense the slowest, most penetrating waves of distant earthquakes. WIthin two years, zero-length spring versions of many seismometers were available, and the resonant period of the lowest-frequency seismometers went from 90 seconds to more than 900 seconds.

The Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer is one of the most elegant horizontal damped pendulums that was adapted to use zero length springs. A 2 cm pendulum is attached like a flag to the middle of a long, vertical steel torsion wire. A mirror on the pendulum reflects a light beam. A magnet wraps around the pendulum to damp motion by inducing eddy currents in the pendulum. The pendulum and wire are sometimes mounted in an evacuated aluminum pipe with a window to pass the light. This compact, lightweight seismometer is sometimes used with electronic photocells and amplification.

A practical amateur design was commissioned by Scientific American for their "Amateur Scientist" feature. Basically, the design is a classic small horizontal pendulum (similar to von Rebeur's). The weight is a large sense coil, moving in the magnetic field of a magnetron magnet (cheaply available from microwave oven repair shops). The damper is a one-megaohm variable resistance across the sense coil. The hinges are very thin sheets of brass, held in clamps. The frame is square aluminum tubing. The device senses velocity rather than position, but requires very little care, is very sensitive with modern electronic amplifiers, and it is easy to construct and tune. A special feature is that the pendulum's frequency and damping can be tested remotely by running a pulse of current through the coil.

The strain seismometer by E. Oddone measures the distance between two piers, which changes when a ground-wave passes the instrument. Oddone specifically wanted to check seismic theory with a seismometer that did not use pendulums.

The greatest single improvement was the long term drum recorder. A large cylinder is wrapped with paper. The cylinder is rotated by clockwork (or a synchronous electric motor) and, turning on a spiral screw, advances along the axis of rotation. A recording stylus is linked to the proof mass by a series of levers (or uses an electric galvanometer movement), to amplify small relative motions of the mass to drive the stylus. This apparatus collects a recording for an extended period of time (usually a week). Clockwork displaces the recording stylus once per minute to allow time comparisons between charts recorded at different locations. On modern seismometers, two such recorders are coupled to the mass to determine motions in each of two axes.

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Modern instruments

Modern instruments use electronic sensors, amplifiers, and recording instruments. Most are broadband, operating on a wide range of frequencies. Some commercially-available research seismometers receive frequencies from 30 Hz (0.03 seconds per cycle) to 1/850 Hz (850 seconds per cycle). Seismometers unavoidably introduce some distortion into the signals they measure, but professionally-designed systems have carefully-characterized frequency transforms. Sensitivities come in three broad ranges: geophones, 50 to 750 V/m; local geologic seismographs, about 1,500 V/m; and teleseismographs, used for world survey, about 20,000 V/m. Instruments come in three main varieties: short period, long period and broad-band. The short and long period measure velocity and are very sensitive, however they 'clip' or go off-scale for ground motion that is strong enough to be felt by people. A 24-bit analog-to-digital conversion channel is commonplace. Practical devices are linear to roughly a part per million.

Image:GeophoneDisassembled.jpg

Delivered seismographs come with two styles of output: analog and digital. Analog seismographs require analog recording equipment, possibly including an analog-to-digital converter. Digital seismographs simply plug in to computers. They present the data in standard digital forms (often "SE2" over ethernet).

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Teleseismometers

The modern broad-band seismometer (so called because of the capacity to record a very broad range of frequencies) consists of a small 'proof mass', confined by electrical forces, driven by sophisticated electronics. As the earth moves, the electronics attempt to hold the mass steady through a feedback circuit. The amount of force necessary to achieve this is then recorded. Most designs are proprietary, but in one publicly-available professional design [2], the electronics holds a mass motionless relative to the frame. Basically, the distance between the mass and some part of the frame is measured very precisely, by a linear variable differential transformer (many instruments use a linear variable differential capacitor). That measurement is then amplified by an electronic negative feedback loop. The amplified current drives a coil very like a loudspeaker, except that the coil is attached to the mass, and the magnet is stationary. The result is that the mass stays nearly motionless. Most instruments directly measure the ground motion using the distance sensor. The voltage generated in a sense coil on the mass by the magnet directly measures the instantaneous velocity of the ground. The current to the drive coil provides a sensitive, accurate measurement of the force between the mass and frame, thus directly measuring the ground's acceleration (using F=MA of basic physics).

One of the continuing problems with sensitive vertical seismographs is the buoyancy of their masses. The uneven changes in pressure caused by wind blowing on an open window can easily change the density of air in a room enough to cause a vertical seismograph to show spurious signals. Most professional seismographs are sealed in rigid gas-tight enclosures. For example, this is why a common Streckheisen model has a thick glass base that must be glued to its pier without bubbles in the glue.

It might seem logical to make the heavy magnet serve as a mass, but that subjects the seismograph to errors when the Earth's magnetic field moves. This is also why seismograph's moving parts are constructed from a material that minimally interacts with magnetic fields. A seismograph is also sensitive to changes in temperature, and many instruments are constructed from low expansion materials such as nonmagnetic invar.

The hinges on a seismograph are usually patented, and by the time the patent has expired, the art has improved. The most successful public domain designs use thin foil hinges in a clamp.

Another issue is that the transfer function of a seismograph must be accurately characterized, so that its frequency response is known. This is often the crucial difference between professional and amateur instruments. Most instruments are characterized on a variable frequency shaking table.

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Strong-motion seismometers

Another type of seismometer is a digital strong-motion seismometer, or accelerograph. This data is essential to understand how an earthquake affects human structures.

A strong-motion seismometer measures acceleration. This can be mathematically integrated later to give velocity and position. Strong-motion seismometers are not as sensitive to ground motions as teleseismic instruments but they stay on scale during the strongest seismic shaking.

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Other forms

Accelerographs and geophones are often heavy cylindrical magnets with a spring-mounted coil inside. As case moves, the coil tends to stay stationary, so the magnetic field cuts the wires, inducing current in the output wires. They receive frequencies from several hundred hertz down to 4.5 Hz (cheap) to as low as 1 Hz (pretty expensive). Some have electronic damping, a low-budget way to get some of the performance of the closed-loop wide-band geologic seismographs.

Strain-beam accelerometers constructed as integrated circuits are too insensitive for geologic seismographs (2002), but are widely used in geophones.

Some other sensitive designs measure the current generated by the flow of a non-corrosive ionic fluid through an electret sponge or a conductive fluid through a magnetic field.

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Modern Recording

Today, the most common recorder is a computer with an analog-to-digital converter, a disk drive and an internet connection. Many observatories now use computers. For amateurs, a PC with a sound card and software is adequate, and saves a lot of paper.

An algorithm often used to eliminate insignificant observations uses a short-term average and a long term average. When the short term average is statistically significant compared to the long term average, the event is worth recording.

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Interconnected seismometers

Seismometers spaced in an array can also be used to precisely locate, in three dimensions, the source of an earthquake, using the time it takes for seismic waves to propagate away from the hypocenter, the initiating point of fault rupture (See also Earthquake location). Interconnected seismometers are also used to detect underground nuclear test explosions.

In seismography, an array of seismometers images sub-surface features. The data are reduced to images using algorithms similar to tomography. The data reduction methods resemble those of computer-aided tomographic medical imaging X-ray machines (CAT-scans), or imaging sonars.

A world-wide array of seismometers can actually image the interior of the Earth in wave-speed and transmissivity. This type of system uses events such as earthquakes, impact events or nuclear explosions as wave sources. The first efforts at this method used manual data reduction from paper seismograph charts. Modern digital seismograph records are better adapted to direct computer use. With inexpensive seismometer designs and internet access, amateurs and small institutions have even formed a "public seimograph network." (See references).

Seismographic systems used for petroleum or other mineral exploration historically used an explosive and a wireline of geophones unrolled behind a truck. Now most short-range systems use "thumpers" that hit the ground, and some small commercial systems have such good digital signal processing that a few sledgehammer strikes provide enough signal for short-distance refractive surveys. Exotic cross or two-dimensional arrays of geophones are sometimes used to perform three-dimensional reflective imaging of subsurface features. Basic linear refractive geomapping software (once a black art) is available off-the-shelf, running on laptop computers, using strings as small as three geophones. Some systems now come in an 18" (0.5 m) plastic field case with a computer, display and printer in the cover!

Small, inexpensive seismic imaging is now sufficiently inexpensive that it is used by civil engineers to survey foundation sites, locate bedrock, and find subsurface water.

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