Shivaji
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| Image:Shivaji Maharaj.jpg | |
| Birth name: | Shivaji Bhonslé |
| Title: | King of the Maratha Empire |
| Birth: | February 19, 1630 |
| Birthplace: | Shivneri Fort near Pune, India |
| Death: | April 3, 1680 |
| Succeeded by: | Sambhaji |
| Marriage: | |
| Children: | |
Shivaji Bhonslé, also known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhonslé (Marathi: छत्रपती शिवाजीराजे भोसले)(Template:Audio) was the founder of the Maratha empire in western India in 1674 which was instrumental in the downfall of the Mughal Empire. He is also remembered for being the only secular king in medieval India.
Using guerrilla tactics superbly suited to the rugged mountains and valleys of the region, he annexed a portion of the then dominant Mughal empire. He is still considered a hero in the present-day state of Maharashtra, and stories of his exploits have entered into folklore. He was one of the pioneers of commando actions, though the term is modern Template:Ref.
The political scene before Shivaji
Shivaji started his rise to power in what is now the state of Maharashtra in the Deccan, close to the power centres of Southern India.
In 1292, Allauddin Khilji defeated Yadavas of Devgiri, but they continue to rule till 1310. But a branch of Yadavas ruled parts of Konkan/Khandesh for a century. While the maratha capital fell to invaders, the regional lords held their sway. In 1453, an invasion of Bahamani in the region of Vishalgarh was defeated. Over time, an understanding evolved between the sultanates and lords and their erstwhile master Yadavas. Yadavas became vassal of Bahamani.In 1492, Bahamani sultanate broke into five Shahi.
In 1565, the allied Deccan sultanates had vanquished the Vijayanagara Empire at Talikota. By the time Shivaji began his military career, power in the region was shared by three Sultanates - Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Golconda. They engaged in a continuous game of mutual alliances and aggressions. Meanwhile, in northern India, the Mughals held sway under the Emperor Shah Jahan.
From 1510 onwards, Portugueese played havoc on the west coast.
Early life
Shivaji was born in 1630, in the Shivneri Fort 60 kilometers north of Pune. His father, Shahaji, a jagirdar of Adilshah and a Maratha, was the sultan of Bijapur in present-day Karnataka. His mother, Jijabai was the daughter of Lakhuji Jadhav, one of the most influential Yadav (Kshatriya) rulers.
During Shivaji's childhood several Maratha generals, like Shahaji, were serving under the Sultanates. When the Mughals and Adilshah completed their conquest of the Nizamshahi kingdom of Ahmednagar in 1636, Shahaji was forced to leave the region around Pune. He was inducted by Adilshah and offered a distant jagir near present-day Banglore, so as to dispel from his mind any ambitions he may have entertained about political independence. But he was allowed to keep his old land tenures and holdings in the Pune.
Foundation of empire
Shahaji appointed the young Shivaji under the care of his mother Jijabai to manage the Pune holdings. A small council of ministers was appointed to assist Shivaji in the administration which includes Shamrao Nilkanth as Peshwa, Balkrishna pant as Muzumdar, Raghunath Ballal as Sabnis and Sonopant as Dabir. Apart from these ministers, military commanders like Kanhoji Jedhe, Baji Pasalkar and Dadoji Konddev were appointed to look after further training. Under such conditions, he took oath at the temple of Raireshwar and assumed administrative responsibility ( 644). Shahaji got Lal Mahal built at Pune. A royal seal was handed over to shivaji which reads, in Sanskrit: 'Shivaji, son of Shahaji is growing like the crescent of new moon. He is there to rule for the welfare ofthe people'. Thus Shivaji started his career as an independent young prince of a small kingdom on mission. Shivaji used the title of 'Raja' only after death of Shahaji.
Thus his parents have made an indelible imprint on his impressionable mind. Shahaji's failed attempts at political independence, his exceptional military capabilities and achievements, his knowledge of Sanskrit, Hindu ethos and patronage of the arts, his war strategies and peacetime diplomacy, all have inspired him. His mother, having lost her father and three brothers to a plot hatched by the Nizamshah, had enough bitter experience of wayward and callous alien rule to instill in Shivaji's mind a natural love for self-determination and aversion for external political domination. Her piety and commitment to indigenous culture made him peerless (as confirmed by even otherwise inimical chroniclers, Khafi Khan especially) in his tolerant attitude towards other religions and treatment of women and non-combatants. Dadaji Konddev was a trusted advisor who ensured Shivaji's proper education and military training. Shahaji's vision, Jijabai's motivation and Dadaji Konddev's able training were the greatest influences that groomed Shivaji into a brave and fearless military leader as well as a responsible administrator. Young Shivaji, the protegé that he was, took little time to apply what he had learnt.
Confrontation with the local Sultanates
Shivaji carried out his first military action by capturing Bijapur Kingdom's Torna fort at the age of 16 in 1646. By 1647 he had captured Kondana and Rajgad forts and now had complete control of the Pune region. And by 1659 Shivaji had captured some forts in the Western Ghats and along the Konkan coast. In an effort to put down what was seen by Bijapur as a revolt, Afzal Khan, Bijapur's finest general, was sent to destroy him.
Afzal Khan
Shivaji had encamped at Pratapgad Fort which was strategically advantageous for mountainous infantry action. Afzal Khan tried to garner support of local militarily independent landlords of the mountainous region who nominally acknowledged the suzerainty of Adilshah. But the powerful baron Kanhoji Jedhe, as directed by Shahaji, helped Shivaji to counter these moves and attract their support.
Image:Raigad.JPG Shivaji and Afzal Khan arranged a meeting at a shamiyana at the foothills of the fort. Each had agreed to meet unarmed, but were to bring with them ten personal bodyguards each, who were to remain at a distance of one 'arrow-shot' away. Nevertheless, both men came to the meeting armed. Amongst Shivaji's hidden weaponry was a small but effective weapon called wagh nakhi which literally means 'the claws of the tiger'. It consisted of an iron finger-grip with four razor claws which could be concealed in the clenched fist. As the two men embraced one another in traditional fashion, Afzal Khan tried to stab Shivaji in the back, but the Maratha was quick and he passed his arm around the Khan’s waist and disembowelled the Khan with a small and sharp dagger called the 'bichwa'. Shivaji's bodyguards who were hidden nearby pounced on Afzal Khan. Khan's emissary, Krishnaji Bhaskar Kulkarni, then attacked Shivaji with a sword. Shivaji easily parried the blow and warned Krishnaji to desist from attacking him as he did not wish to kill a Brahmin. But when Krishnaji tried to strike him again, Shivaji cut him down without further ado. Banda Sayyed, who was one of Afzal Khan's bodyguards, drew his sword and, charging towards Shivaji, managed to strike him on the head and cut through his turban, but did not penetrate the steel helmet underneath. Nevertheless, Shivaji suffered a cut and blood oozed out, drenching a good part of his robe around the shoulders. Before Sayyed could strike again, Shivaji's bodyguard, Jiva Mahala, killed him with a single stroke of his sabre. (The pithy Marathi phrase : ‘Hota Jiva Mhanun Wachala Shiva’ - 'Because of Jiva, Shivaji survived' - owes its origin to this alert act). Afzal Khan managed to hold his gushing entrails and hurtled, faint and bleeding, outside the shamiyana and threw himself into his palanquin. The bearers hastily lifted their charge and began moving rapidly away down the slope when Sambhaji Kavji Kondhalkar went in pursuit, hacked their legs and decapitated the Khan.
Shivaji sped up the slope towards the battlements and ordered a bugle to be sounded as a signal for discharging a cannon shot from the fort. It was the predetermined signal to his infantry, which had been deployed at strategic positions along the valley, to commence attacking and decimating the Khan's army.
Shivaji arranged for a dignified burial of Afzal Khan's headless body near the site of the meeting, even allotting land for revenue to pay for its upkeep. The same was done for Sayyad Banda. The severed head was sent to Rajgarh to be shown to Jijabai. She had long wanted vengeance for the deliberate maltreatment of Shahaji in his captivity by Afzal Khan. And for also deliberately failing to send timely reinforcements to her son (Shivaji's elder brother and a Bijapur general) Sambhaji's aid and thus causing him to be killed in the Battle of Kanakgiri.
Siddi Jauhar
Now Adil Shah sent an Abyssinian general of repute, Siddi Jauhar 1660. Shivaji took up a position at the fort Panhala, near present day Kolhapur, on the borders of his dominion. Meanwhile mughals also sent their contingents under celebrated Shaista Khan who camped at Pune. Shivaji in a brilliant move decided to break the siege of the fort, so that the enemy would scatter. Then war would be fought on a vast territory with an amazing speed. Accordingly, on the dead of the full moon night, he passed through the siege. Meanwhile the enemy chased and caught some portion of his troops. The caught king turned out to be an imposter of Shivaji. He was a barber, namely Shiva. Again the enemy chased him. By that time Shivaji had reached a strategic location, Ghod Khind, a gorge. It was very narrow so as to pass only a few soldiers at a time. Bajiprabhu, a gallant general along with Bandal mavalees took the position to defend the pass till Shivaji reached another fort, Vishal Gadh.
Shivaji attacked another siege at the base of that fort with such a vigour that it was broken. Meanwhile, Baji Prabhu successfully defended the pass with 300 soldiers. He was badly wounded, but he gave up only when he heard the sound of cannons blasted by Shivaji from the fort that he had reached safely. That pass is now called as 'Pavan Khind' - The Sacred Pass. After crossing the pass, the enemy attacked Shivaji at the Vishal Gadh fort. But again they were beaten badly and repulsed with heavy losses. They left the battlefield never to return again. To please Siddi Jauhar, Shivaji vacated the fort, Panhal garh. Even today youths trek on the route taken by Shivaji between the forts of Panhala and Vishal Gadh. The distance is around 70 km.
Clash with the Mughals
The Mughals had defeated Shahaji and annexed territories which Shivaji now wanted to recover. He frequently raided the Mughal territory to the north of his small kingdom, carrying out guerilla attacks against an empire at the height of its power.
Shahista Khan
Shahista Khan, Aurangzeb's maternal uncle, seized Pune and the fort of Chakan. His vast army was more than a match for Shivaji's troops and he was an experienced commander who had defeated Shahaji in this region in 1636. But though he held Pune for almost a year, he had little further success and his troops looted peasants and villages in frustration.
An Uzbek general, Kartalab Khan, was sent on a mission to attack and reduce Shivaji's forts in the Konkan. He left Pune with 30,000 troops. This time the Mughals did not march openly, since they wanted to surprise Shivaji. But Shivaji took them by surprise at a pass known as 'Umber Khind', near present day Pen, and attacked them from all sides. They surrendered with their baggage and arms.
Shivaji's next target was the Mughal camp at Pune. In April 1663 he led a small group, in the guise of a marriage party, on a daring attack on the residence of the Khan, who was occupying a small palace (Lal Mahal) which had been Shivaji's childhood residence. The attack was successful, though the Khan managed to escape with the loss of three fingers, cut off by Shivaji as he jumped out of a window. Shivaji managed to escape, fooling pursuing Mughals with torches attached to bulls in the pass known as 'Katraj Ghat', and beat off an attack at Kondana the following day. The narrow escape made the Khan give up the fight and withdraw from Pune.
Surat
Shivaji's next target was Surat, a wealthy port town and a key Mughal power centre. When Shivaji arrived at Surat he demanded tribute from the Mughal commander and a small army stationed for port security, which was refused. So after Shivaji took the city in 1664 he put it to the sack. Later he had to give up the port without a fight when he found out a bigger Mughal army was in its way to Surat.
Raja Jai Singh
The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb was angered by Shivaji's activities, and sent a large army to finish him off for good, led by Raja Jai Singh of Amber. Shivaji's army was crushed badly: he was outnumbered and this time his usual guerilla tactics were successfully countered by the experienced Jai Singh. The commander of the key Purandhar fort was killed in its defence (see Murarbaji). Faced with overwhelming force, Shivaji opted for peace and surrendered, accepting in the 1665 Treaty of Purandar the loss of about 90% of his territory and 23 of his forts. He was allowed to retain some strategic forts. He accepted a position of a mansabdar for his son Sambhaji in the Mughal military hierarchy.
Trip To Agra and Escape
In 1666, Aurangzeb summoned Shivaji to Agra, along with his six year old son Sambhaji. In Agra, on 12 May 1666, Aurangzeb made Shivaji stand with the lowly commoners in his court, an intentional insult. Deeply offended, Shivaji stormed out of court and was promptly placed under house arrest.
From his spies, Shivaji came to know that Aurangzeb planned to shift him to a secure location from where escape would be impossible. So he feigned sickness and requested to be allowed to send sweets to temples in Agra as an offering. After several days of sending out boxes containing sweets, Shivaji disguised himself as a palanquin bearer and managed to sneak out without being seen. Sambhaji had sneaked out a couple of days earlier, disguised as the son of a brahmin who had come to pray for Shivaji's quick recovery.
The details and mechanism of Shivaji's escape are uncertain, with historians producing different reconstructions.
In the years 1667-69, Shivaji lay low. The Mughals had the impression that he was now a spent force and would not cause them any more trouble. Then in January 1670 Shivaji's forces launched a concerted attack on Mughal garrisons in Maharashtra. The force of the assault was overwhelming and within six months Shivaji had regained most of his old territory. His army was much larger now: about 40 thousand cavalry, backed by 60 thousand infantry. From 1670 to 1674 Shivaji continued to expand his territory at the expense of the Adilshahi and the Mughals.
Coronation
Image:RajaShivaji.jpg In pursuit of royal seal given by his father, Shivaji did coronation. On that occassion, he extended the council of ministers to Ashtapradhan (eight ministers). A new era was started which is known as the 'Rajybhishek era'. New gold coin known as 'Shivrai' was brought into circulation.
A thread ceremony (Upanayanam) took place on May 29, 1674, and then a Vratya Stoma ceremony was performed.
Shivaji was formally crowned Chatrapati ("Holder of the Umbrella", representing the protection he bestowed on his people) on June 6, 1674 at the Raigad fort, and given the title Kshatriya Kulavantas Simhasanadheeshwar Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. Pandit Gaga Bhatt, renowned as Vedonarayana (Greatest exponent of Vedic discourse), Brahmin from Varanasi, officially presided over the ceremony. Shivaji insisted on an Indrabhishek ritual, which had fallen into disuse since the 9th century. A few days later a second ceremony was carried out, this time according to the Bengal school of Tantricism and presided over by Nischal Puri.
Some historians attribute the need for the coronation to resentment by the other Maratha Deccan nobles of Shivaji's success (he being a Bhosle) and his taking a higher seat than them at state dinners Template:Ref. However it is worth mentioning that Shivaji had mentioned his gotra as kaushika (Vishwamitra) in his danpatra (donation) Template:Ref. Hence this kind of observation made during late 19th century does not hold any ground .
Henry Oxinden (later Acting President of the Bombay Presidency) from the British East India Company was present at the ceremony.
Battle of Sinhagad
After Shivaji had been coronated, one fort on the outskirts Pune, Kondana, was under the control of a mughal general. This bothered Shivaji and Jijabai. Shivaji requested one of his most senior and trusted generals, Tanaji, to head a mission to capture Kondana. Tanaji Malsure was already predisposed with his son's marriage. But for him duty came first, and he chose to go for the mission although Shivaji tried to convince him to attend his son's marriage. Kondana was heavily guarded by the mughals, and there was only one way to gain access: an almost impossible to climb, steep edge of the fort. Tanaji's soldiers braved all odds and climbed the steepest side of the fort. In the bloody battle that followed, Tanaji lead from the front but was seriously wounded. Two pieces of news arrived in quick succession at Shivaji's palace: first that Kondana fort had been captured by Shivaji's soldiers; and second that General Tanaji had gone down fighting. Shivaji quipped "Gadh ala, pan Sinha gela" (paraphrased and translated): "We won the fort, but lost the Lion !" Henceforth the Kondana was renamed Sinhagad (The fort of the Lion).
Southern expedition (Dakshin digvijaya)
At the end of 1676, Shivaji launched a wave of conquests in southern India with a massive force of 50,000 (30,000 cavalry & 20,000 infantry). He defeated and captured the forts at Vellore and Jinji in modern day Tamilnadu. He also signed a friendship treaty with the Kutubshah of Golconda. These victories proved quite crucial during future wars. Jinjee served as Maratha capital for 9 years during 27 years of war.
The end
Shivaji died in 1680 at Raigad, after running a fever for three weeks.
Thus Shivaji successfully fought the Mughals to create a powerful independent state. During his early career he was only able to defeat small Mughal contingents stationed in villages. Later on he defeated major Mughal armies in the battles of Salher and Vani-Dindori.
Shivaji's rule
Shivaji established an effective civil and military administration. He also built a powerful navy and erected new forts like Sindhudurg and strengthened old ones like Vijayadurg on the west coast. The Maratha navy held its own against the British, Portuguese and Dutch till Maratha internal conflict brought their downfall in 1756.
But he is well known for his fatherly attitude towards his subjects. He believed that the state belonged to the people. He encouraged all socio-economic groups to participate in the ongoing political changes. To this day he is remembered as a just and welfare-minded king.
Shivaji's forts
Shivaji is well known for his forts; he was in possession of around three hundred at the time of his death. Many, like Panhala, existed before him but others like Raigad (hailed as the 'Gibraltar of the East') and Pratapgad were built by him from scratch. These forts were central to his empire and their remains are among the foremost sources of information about his rule. The French missionary Father Fryer witnessed the fortifications of Gingee, Madras, built by Shivaji after its conquest, and appreciated his technical knowhow and knowledge.
The hill fort Salher in Nashik district was at a distance of 1200 kms from the hill fort Jingi, near Chennai. Over such long distance, hill forts were supported by seaforts. Sea fort Colaba,near Mumbai was at a distance of 500 km from seafort Sindhudurg. These all forts were put under a havaldar with a strong garrison. Strict discipline was followed. These forts proved useful during Mughal-Maratha wars.
Along with Rana Kumbha of Mewar and Raja Bhoj of Shilahar, he stands as a grand figure in the art of fortification in Indian sub-continent. There are a number of legends about these forts. Even today thousands of youths visit these forts in his memory.
Shivaji and Sanskrit
Perhaps house of Shivaji was one of the royal families who were well acquainted with Sanskrit and promoted it. The root can be traced from Shahaji who supported Jayram Pindye and many like him. Shivaji's seal was prepared by him. Shivaji inherited this and developed that taste. He named his forts as Sindhdurg, Prachandgarh, Suvarndurg etc. He named Ashta Pradhan (council of ministers) as per Sanskrit nomenclature viz. Nyayadhish, Senapati etc. He had kept a provision for learning the Vedas. He got Rajya Vyavahar Kosh (a political treatise) prepared.
After his death Sambhaji, who was himself a sanskrit scholar (his verse - Budhbhushanam), continued it. His grandson Shahu spent his entire childhood in Mughal captivity, which affected his taste. But even he showered gifts on learned Brahmins. Serfoji II from the Thanjavur branch of the Bhonsle continued the tradition by printing the first book in Marathi Devnagari.
Shivaji and Religion
Shivaji was a deeply religious Hindu, and respected all religions. Shivaji used to visit Guru Ramdas, who is considered by many Hindus to be an avatar of Indian God Anjaneya. Shivaji had great respect for Warkari saints like Tukaram and others. Shahaji had donated a huge piece of land to Shaha-Sharif Durga of Ahmednagar. Shivaji generally did not give land to any particular person except on a rare occasion. Shivaji had one-third Muslims in his forces, especially in the navy. Shivaji's most trusted general in all his military campaigns was Haider Ali Kohari, a Muslim. Not only that, many of his other generals were Muslims too, Darya Sarang was chief of armoury, Ibrahim Khan and Daulat Khan were prominent in his naval division and Siddi Ibrahim was chief of his cannon division. The first thing Shivaji did after a conquest was to promulgate protection of mosques and Muslim tombs. Shivaji had great respect for the Sufi tradition of Islam. Shivaji used to pray at the mausoleum of the great Sufi Muslim saint Baba Sharifuddin. He also used to visit the abode of another great Sufi saint, Shaikh Yacub of the Konkan, and take his blessings. He used to call Hazrat Baba of Ratnagiri bahut thorwale bhau, meaning "great elder brother". Kafi Khan, the mughal historian, and also Bernier, a foreign traveler, speaks highly of his religious policy. He was against forced conversion, which he opposed successfully. He also brought back converts like Netaji Palkar, Bajaji in Hinduism. He did not forcefully convert any captive or defeated person. He had prohibited slavery in his kingdom.
Shivaji was extremely humane to all his subjects, whichever religion they practised. Shivaji applied a humane and liberal policy on the Muslim women of his state. One instance, which shows Shivaji's respect for women, irrespective of their religion, nationality, or creed is well-documented. Shivaji's army had defeated the Subhedar of Kalyan and had brought in the daughter in law of the Subhedar. When she was brought to Shivaji's palace, Shivaji respectfully apologized to her, and appreciated her beauty by saying, "If my mother had been so beatuiful, I would have inherited such beauty..." and returned her to her family.
The secularism practised by Shivaji can be observed in an admonishing letter he wrote to Aurangzeb, in which he wrote:
"Verily, Islam and Hinduism are terms of contrast. They are used by the true Divine Painter for blending the colours and filling in the outlines. If it is a mosque, the call to prayer is chanted in remembrance of him. If it is a temple, the bells are rung in yearning for him alone."
The Epilogue
After his death, his elder son Sambhaji and his step-mother Soyarabai fought for control of the kingdom. After a brief struggle Sambhaji was crowned king. Aurangzeb's son, Prince Akbar, rebelled against his father and was sheltered by Sambhaji. The emperor and his entourage moved to the Deccan in 1681 to coordinate the assault on the Marathas and were initially successful, but they were defeated and withdrew in 1707. This war of 27 years was a tribute to Shivaji's genius, even after his death, people fought along with his army to preserve the swarajya .
Remembering Shivaji
Image:Shivajistatue.JPG Because of his struggle against an imperial power, Shivaji became an icon of freedom fighters (along with the Rani of Jhansi) in the Indian independence struggle that followed two centuries later.
He is remembered as a just and wise king and his rule is called one of the six golden pages in Indian history. A political party, the Shiv Sena, claims to draw inspiration from him. School texts in Maharashtra glorify his period. And in recent years organisations such as the Sambhaji Brigade have adopted a new religion known as Shiv Dharma, with Shivaji as its principal deity [1].
Devotional and political approaches to Shivaji have clashed with historical ones. The publication in 2003 of James W. Laine's Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India Template:Ref sparked controversy in India for its inclusion of contemporary speculation allegedly derogatory of Shivaji. In December 2003 one of those thanked by Laine, historian Shrikant Bahulkar, was assaulted and had his face blackened by Shiv Sena activists [2]. And then on 5 January 2004 the Sambhaji Brigade attacked the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute in Pune, Maharashtra, doing considerable damage to the holdings [3].
Sahar International Airport in Mumbai was renamed Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport in Shivaji's honour.
Associates of Shivaji
Some of Shivaji's close associates were also his primary army chieftains, and have entered folklore along with him. These include Baji Pasalkar, Tanaji Malusare, Bajiprabhu, Firangoji Narsala, Murarbaji, Prataprao Gujar, Kanhoji Jedhe, Kondaji Farjand, Balaji Avji Chitnis, Netaji Palkar and Lay Patil Koli, and Khando Ballal Under Shivaji, many men of talent and enterprise rose into prominence .They carried forward his mission and ensured defeat of Mughals in the war of 27 years. These include Ramchandrapant amtya, Santaji Ghorpade, Dhanaji Jadhav, Parsoji Bhosale, Harji raje Mahadik, Kanhoji Aangre.
External links
- A website dedicated to Shivaji
- A blog dedicated to Shivashahir Babasaheb Purandare's Shivacharitra.
- Marathi Bestselling book 'Janata Raja' by Ranjeet Desai available in English
- the controversy over James Laine’s Shivaji (Complete Review Quarterly)
- a review of Laine's Shivaji (Asia Times)
References
- Apte, B.K. (editor), Chhatrapati Shivaji: Coronation Tercentenary Commemoration Volume, Bombay: University of Bombay (1974-75)
- Duff, Grant," History of Marhattas",London
- Desai, Ranjeet, Shivaji the Great, Janata Raja (1968), Pune: Balwant Printers - English Translation of popular Marathi book.
- Joshi, Ajit, Agryahun Sutka, Marathi, Pune: Shivapratap Prakashan (1997)
- Template:Note Kasar, D.B., Rigveda to Raigarh making of Shivaji the great, Mumbai: Manudevi Prakashan (2005)
- Template:Note Laine, James W., Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India, Oxford: Oxford University Press (2003), ISBN 0195141261
- More, Vasantrao, "James Laine: A research scholar or a barbarian?", Marathi, Shivsangram Prakashan (2004), Kolhapur
- Parulekar, Shyamrao, Yashogatha Vijaya durg, Vijay Durg (1982)
- Phule, Mahatma Jyotiba, Chatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhonsle Yanche Powade, Marathi, (1869)
- Sarkar, Jadunath, "Shivaji and his times", Calcutta
- Zakaria, Rafique, "Communal Rage in Secular India", Popular Prakashan, Mumbai (2003)
- Template:Note Singh, Patwant, The Sikhs, Knopf (2000), ISBN 0375407286
- Template:Note Vaidya, C.V., History of Mediaeval India
- Template:Note Prof.Bhagat, Datta., SABHASAD WRITTEN SHIV CHARITRA(EDITED)
- Template:Note Encyclopedia of the House of Mewar
Template:Start box Template:Succession box Template:End box
See also
fr:Shivâjî Bhonsla kn:ಛತ್ರಪತಿ ಶಿವಾಜಿ mr:छत्रपती शिवाजीराजे भोसले sv:Shivaji