Church of Christ

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Alternate meanings: see Church of Christ (disambiguation). The Church of Christ discussed in this article is not related to the United Church of Christ, Church of Christ, Scientist, to Mormonism, or to any Church of Christ within the Latter Day Saint movement.

The Churches of Christ are autonomous Christian congregations. In the United States, for the most part the churches' roots can be traced back to the Restorationist movement championed by American preachers in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, most notably Thomas Campbell and his son Alexander Campbell. However, adherants of the faith often deny the church's 19th century historical origins, preferring to emphasize their belief that the modern Churches of Christ represent the original, primitive Christian church established by the Apostles on the Day of Pentecost.

Today, Churches of Christ have the following distinctive traits: the refusal to hold to any creeds other than those specifically mentioned in the Bible itself; the practice of adult baptism as a requirement for the remission of sins; autonomous non-denominational congregational church organization, with congregations overseen by a plurality of male elders; the weekly observance of The Lord's Supper; and the belief in a cappella congregational singing during worship.

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Prevalence and Growth

The United States Census Bureau lists the Churches of Christ as the self-described religious identification of 1,769,000 adults in 1990, and 2,593,000 adults in 2001 (rounded to nearest thousand), ranking 11th in the list of Christian religious affiliations, which fixes it above the Jehohvah's Witnesses but below the Mormon/Latter Day Saints. The same data reports 15,000 individual congregations in 1999. <ref>U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2004-2005 No. 67. Self-Described Religious Identification of Adult Population 1990 and 2001 and No. 68. Religious Bodies—Selected Data </ref>.

These figures correspond to a compound annual growth rate of 3.54% for the years 1990 to 2001. The church was first enumerated separately in 1906 when there were 159,658 members. This makes the average annual growth rate 2.98% from 1906 to 2001, so that from 1990 to 2001 the church grew at a rate 18.9% higher than its historical average growth rate.

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Self-identification

Despite the churches' historical origin as part of a movement started by Baptist and Presbyterian preachers, it should be noted that members of this group are apt to object to being referred to as "Protestants", believing that Christ's church was not founded as a protest against anything, other than perhaps the domination of the present world by Satan.

The Church of Christ has firm disagreements with the Roman Catholic Church and does not recognize the authority of the episcopal see of Rome.

Some members would also object to the categorization of their church as a "denomination", as one of the tenets of this movement is that they are not a denomination and that denominationalism is a sinful departure from the original plan laid down in the Bible for the church.

Often, the more recent historical origins of the Churches of Christ as an outgrowth of Restoration Movement theology are deemphasized in Church of Christ teachings, which tend to point only to the founding of the primitive first-century church. One scholar, Russell Paden, has called this tendency "historylessness" while comparing the Churches of Christ to an offshoot movement:

Both groups have an attitude of "historylessness," meaning that they believe their religious beliefs and practices are above being influenced by anything extra-biblical, including the culture around them, contemporary social dynamics, or nearly 2,000 years of church history. In essence, each group believes that it has recreated the apostolic first-century church with all the perfection of the first ecclesiastical age.<ref>Paden 1994 (Abstract)</ref>

However, scholarly journals produced at Church-affiliated institutions do exhibit awareness of the historical origins of the Church of Christ, examining subjects such as the changing makeup of church hymnals, and the various historical baptism controversies: an example is Abilene Christian University's Restoration Quarterly.

Some churches do from time to time revisit the Church's origins in the very earliest years of the Restoration Movement in special sermons dedicated to the subject, however the later disagreements are usually glossed over.

Historically, individuals in the Churches of Christ have aspired to be members of the one body of Christ described in the New Testament, without denominational affiliation. Traditionally, they have viewed congregational identity not as denominational identity, but rather as a reconstruction of church identity described in the New Testament (for example, the churches in Corinth and Galatia as described in the Pauline epistles.)

There has been substantial debate over the topic of the Church of Christ's identity or non-identity as a denomination in recent years, with some now embracing the view that the Church of Christ is a denomination.

However, notwithstanding recent developments, in order to understand the position of the great majority of churches self-identifying as part of the Churches of Christ, it is necessary to consider the principal motivations of the American Restoration Movement.

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Origins

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Restoration Movement

The American Restoration Movement of the 19th century promoted a return to the practices of the first century Christian churches. Part of the Second Great Awakening, the founders of the movement were influenced by the works of Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke. In some ways, the original vision that denominational distinctions could be cast off or ignored mirrors other 19th century utopian visions such as those found among Shakers and Quakers; however, here the emphasis was simply on acceptance of a diversity of doctrine: "In essentials, unity; in non-essentials, liberty; in all things, charity," was one oft-quoted mantra of the period.

However, as the torch of Restoration Movement faith passed from the likes of Alexander Campbell and Barton W. Stone, the principle of unity in essential matters of doctrine led many to question what constituted an "essential" matter. To the mind of those growing up during the post-Enlightenment Industrial Revolution, the answer seemed simple: if all that were necessary for salvation was contained in the pages of the Bible, a systematic analysis of those scriptures should provide illumination for any doctrinal dispute, no matter how minor. Soon, among many congregations and in a de facto fashion, the "in non-essentials, liberty" clause became subjugated to the "in essentials, unity" clause as the scope of essential doctrine was expanded time and again by those who sought to recreate the Christian church of the first century.

Other churches that grew out of the Restoration Movement include the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ (often designated "Instrumental" for their acceptance of musical instruments within worship) and the Disciples of Christ. A complete history of this movement is beyond the scope of this article: see the Restoration Movement article for details of the motivations and forces which shaped this important chapter in the story of American religious practice. See also the section of the present article entitled Other Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement bodies.

The present article describes the Churches of Christ which emerged as the minority faction in the schism over instrumental music, which led David Lipscomb to identify the Churches of Christ as a separate body to the United States Census Bureau in 1906. At the time of the 1906 split with the Disciples of Christ, the Churches of Christ numbered 159,658 members, with the Disciples of Christ numbering over six times as many. <ref>United States Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of the Census, Religious Bodies, 1906 (United States Printing Office, 1910), 236.</ref>

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Post 1906 schisms

The placing of such strict emphasis on "correct" Biblical doctrine meant that other schisms in the Church of Christ were to follow: one researcher counts over 21 schisms by the 1960s. Some of these divisions were delayed responses which had their roots in 19th century disputes within the Restoration Movement. As a result, the majority Disciples of Christ faction of the 1906 split would also go on experience schism in the 20th century, in parallel to the Churches of Christ.

The remainder of this section treats only those schisms in the Church of Christ itself following its emergence in 1906. For the broader treatment, see Restoration Movement: Church of Christ Schisms.

By the 1920s, a schism developed over the use of multiple cups versus a single cup in the serving of communion. Further disputes arose over the way in which portions of bread were divided from the loaf during communion, and whether divorced people could partake in communion. <ref>A Brief History of the One-Cup and Non-Sunday School Movement</ref>

Two separate divisions took place in the 1930s, over the permissability of Sunday school and premillennialism.

Further topics which have induced schisms include use of church buildings for purposes other than worship with a related dispute over the placing of facilities such as kitchens in church buildings; financial cooperation among multiple congregations for purposes of supporting institutions such as schools and orphanages; whether to practice closed or open fellowship with other "Christians"; and whether the Bible prohibited the paying of ministers.

Many of these related disputes were ramified across schism boundaries in polyphyletic fashion so that seemingly almost any combination of permissability and prohibition for any of the disputed patterns of worship could be found, albeit among some tiny fraction of the whole number of congregations. The internal literature of the period is rife with consternation over the rate of schism and the apparent inability of the various churches to do anything constructive about the various divisions.

Although the view of rejecting institutional cooperation was shared by the departing "one-Cup, no Sunday school" faction in the 1930s, a separate dispute over the issue took place from 1945 to 1960, producing the group of Churches of Christ known as non-institutional (see the section on disputes within the church.) The non-institutional churches were pejoratively known as "anti" churches in "mainline" Church of Christ circles.

An offshoot of the mainline churches emerged in the late 1970s, when the International Churches of Christ were formed. This organization taught much in common with the Church of Christ, while exhibiting patterns of evangelism similar to the Shepherding Movement which arose in charismatic circles around the same time and geographic locale.

It appears that the response of some congregations to postmodern thought has produced another group within the main group, though this has yet to be formalized as yet another split. See the article on Church of Christ Emergent.

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Church organization

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Congregational Autonomy

There are no headquarters for the Church of Christ. Typically, the churches participate in a loose, informal network of other local Churches of Christ. From the beginning of the Restoration Movement, newspapers and magazines edited by church leaders have been important forces in unifying like-minded churches. Many congregations value the influence of affiliated universities and colleges, while others resist such affiliations.

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Congregational Leadership

Each congregation has its own leadership hierarchy. Preeminent among the leadership of any congregations are its Elders, who are seen as the spiritual leaders of the congregation. Assisting in the administration of specific practical functions of the church are Deacons, and usually one or more leaders variously referred to as preachers, ministers, or evangelists.

Due to passages such as 1 Timothy 2:8-12 regarding the role of women, these leadership positions are almost always reserved to men in most churches. (See Teachings regarding gender roles.)

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Elders

Elders are spiritually mature Christian men whose religious work may be some specialized capacity of a spiritual nature. They provide moral guidance, and they or their designees approve and establish Bible study curriculum, select Sunday school teachers, and select the Preacher/Evangelist when the position becomes vacant. In some congregations, elders also select the deacons.

Elders are also called pastors, shepherds, and bishops (all Biblical terms referring to the same office), but the use of "elder" is the most common by far. Elders are selected by the members of a congregation; the method of doing this varies considerably between congregations, but involves confirming that a potential elder does indeed embody all of the characteristics of elders which are listed in the Bible in 1 Timothy 5:17-20, 1 Timothy 3:1-7, and Titus 1:5-9.

In a decreasing number of congregations, the eldership is something of a self-perpetuating board in which its members are the determiners of the qualifications of their successors and announce whom they have selected to join them with little or no congregational input; this practice was at one time fairly widespread but is no longer acceptable to many members of many congregations.

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Deacons

Deacons are recognized special servants of the church and most often take care of specialized needs of the congregation. Typically, the physical building in which services are held is overseen by a Deacon. Like Elders, Deacons are generally selected by the congregations in a manner very similar to that of elders. Qualifications of Deacons are listed in the Bible in 1 Timothy 3:8-12.

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Preacher, Evangelist, or Minister

The Preacher, Evangelist or Minister prepares and delivers sermons, teaches Bible classes, performs weddings, preaches or evangelizes the gospel, and performs baptisms. This position is typically paid to allow the evangelist to disentangle himself from secular employment and focus on studies. (People associated with the Churches of Christ do not use the title "pastor" to refer to their pulpit minister, as this term is held to refer to the same position as "elder" or "bishop" in the Bible, which they feel requires a certain set of qualifications outlined above.) Typically these ministers are not 'ordained' as is the tradition of many denominational organizations, and do not use the salutation 'Reverend' or 'Rev.' before their name, professing that only God should be recognized as Reverend.

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Other Leaders

Many congregations also employ other paid ministers besides the pulpit minister, such as ministers for youth.

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Hermeneutics

Understanding the positions of the Churches of Christ requires an understanding of their historically accepted hermeneutic. This hermeneutic is often summarized in three parts: Command, Example, and Necessary Inference. An additional hermenutic is the principle of silence.

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Command

"Command" refers to a direct command found in the Scriptures (this being further complicated by what some mainstream evangelicals would refer to as the dispensation principle; for example, the command to build an ark was directed to Noah specifically, as opposed to being directed to Christians in general. Additionally, commands are classified as 'Specific' or 'Generic' in nature.)

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Example

"Example" is sometimes phrased as "an approved Apostolic example." The intent here is that the apostles or 1st century Christians performed some action or engaged in some practice that was approved of (or not condemned).

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Necessary Inference

"Necessary inference" refers to some interpretational conclusion that would be necessary in order to obey a command or example. In other words, all things necessary in order to carry out a clear command would also be authorized. The New Testament is necessarily silent about many other issues, such as orphanages/children's homes, Sunday school, and congregationally-owned houses of worship ("church buildings"). In each case, the "mainstream" group has reasoned that "necessary inference" allows their use as a way of providing for otherwise-homeless children, facilitating study of the Scriptures, and providing for a reasonable and convenient setting for worship services. In applying the "principle of silence", or distinguishing between congregational and individual responsibilities, some consider these practices to be unauthorized; the most prominent of these are the non-institutional churches and the non-class or non-Sunday-School churches.

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Principle of Silence

The principle of silence is also observed by the Churches of Christ, to varying degrees. When the Bible does not specifically or indirectly command a practice, it is considered unauthorized. The disagreements within the Churches of Christ primarily derive from differences in perception of the meaning of the word "necessary" within the phrase "necessary inference", and the conclusions which can be rightly drawn from scripture's "silence". For example, the non-instrumental churches of Christ agree that the absence of references to instrumental music in New Testament worship mean that their use is unauthorized.

Some more liberal churches have begun to abandon the principle of silence. (It should be noted, however, that the Independent Christian Churches and Churches of Christ do use musical instruments and do not see their use as forbidden.)

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New Testament versus Old

The Churches of Christ historically do not use the Old Testament to authorize practices, relying solely on the New Testament for matters of practice. They believe that the commands of the Old Testament were to Jews (under Mosaic Law) only and were done away with when Christ died, pointing to verses such as Galatians 3:16-29, Ephesians 2:13-16, Colossians 2:13-14, Hebrews 7:12 and 18-22, and Hebrews 8:6-13. Thus, things used under the Old Testament by Israel in worship (instruments, incense, animal sacrifice, etc.) which are not repeated in the New Testament are not considered authorized for Christians today.

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Divine inspiration of Biblical texts

The Churches of Christ teach that the Bible was written by men who were inspired and guided by God the Father through the Holy Spirit. Most believe in "plenary" inspiration, whereby the inspired author is able to use his language to express divine truth, but the ultimate truthfulness is from God; this contrasts with "mechanical" inspiration, where the Biblical author is just a mortal "typewriter" for an immortal God, or a Divine "secretary" merely taking dictation.

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Recognition of Bible translations

A small subset of congregations are King James Only in orientation. Other, mostly older congregations use the KJV exclusively as a matter of tradition, but most congregations use - and are open to - a variety of translations of the Bible including the New International Version and the New Revised Standard Version. The necessity to "speak of Bible things in Bible ways" is often emphasized.

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Specific teachings

Churches of Christ mostly agree with the theology of conservative Evangelical Christian groups, believing in Jesus as the Son of God, the death of Jesus by crucifixion as atonement for sin, and most other basic Christian teachings. However, there are many specific practices that distinguish them from these other bodies.

The Church of Christ believes that the organization and structure of the church was laid down by Jesus Christ himself through his apostles in the form of the New Testament. Since this church has no headquarters and each congregation is independent, the teachings may vary somewhat, but overall there is a remarkable degree of uniformity among Churches of Christ in each region. The common variances are over the institution of Bible classes, the method that the Lord's supper is served (whether the fruit of the vine is served in one cup or many), the role of women in public worship, and whether ministers should be paid professionals or serve on a volunteer basis.

When a "faithful" member dies, he or she does not "go" to heaven or hell. The person is not "sentenced" by Christ to heaven or hell until "Judgement Day". There is no means of earthly or spiritual intercession for the soul of one who has died. There will be a resurrection of both the righteous and the unrighteous (Acts 24:15).

Political endorsements are highly discouraged, if not condemned, as members are expected to make their own choices for suitable political leaders.

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Theology

The theology of Churches of Christ is basically Arminian, although probably not often referred to as such. Original Sin and the whole idea of Total Depravity from which it ensues are rejected, although the human predilection to sin due to temptations and the limitations of human nature is affirmed. Election and predestination are functions of the exercise of free will – those who freely choose God's way through Christ are elect and hence saved, others are lost. This decision can be changed based on the believer's behavior – he or she can consciously elect to cease following Christ and hence be lost ("fallen from grace"), but can be restored upon repentance. God's sacrifice of Christ provided sufficient grace to save all persons from their sins, but it is imcumbent upon them to accept Christ's will and follow Him for this grace to save them personally.

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Theory of Salvation (Soteriology)

The requirements for salvation are commonly presented in the following steps:

  • Hearing (the Word of God)
  • Believing (said Word)
  • Repenting (of one's sins)
  • Confessing (that Jesus Christ is Lord)
  • Being baptized (by full immersion).
  • Continued faithfulness is enjoined because the Church of Christ denies the doctrine of perseverance of the saints.

Because of the high value attached to the necessity of a believer's baptism by immersion, Churches of Christ are sometimes said to believe in "baptismal regeneration." The shift to emphasis on immersive baptism as an absolute prerequisite to salvation occurred after the death of Alexander Campbell, who opposed the concept, and was advanced by Austin McGary in the pages of his periodical, Firm Foundation: the strictness of McGary's view was opposed by David Lipscomb in his periodical, the Gospel Advocate, but would win out among the conservatives who split from the Disciples of Christ to form the Church of Christ in 1906.

Members deny that baptism without faith can bring salvation, but point out that the Bible does command believers to be baptized (Acts 2:38, etc.). In most if not all respects, their teaching on a believer's baptism mirrors that of the Independent Christian Churches and Churches of Christ.

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Eternal condemnation of the "lost"

People who do not follow the Church's teachings on salvation are termed "lost." Many members of the Churches of Christ believe that the "lost" will be condemned to an eternity without God.

A vast majority believe in a literal hell, while others believe it is a metaphorical eternity outside of the light of God.

A few church leaders believe in some version of annihilationism, which holds that the fires of hell consume sinners, who then cease to exist.

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Age (or Knowledge) of Accountability

The Church of Christ teaches that there is one reprieve from eternal condemnation apart from voluntary submission. Certain classes of people are seen as not lost, due to the fact that they are unable to make proper moral choices due to youth or deficiency in mental capacity.

Children below the age of accountability are considered in a "safe" position in the eyes of God, and would not be condemned to hell if they died before the age of accountability. However, members do not claim that this age is fixed; it can vary by maturity and knowledge, and so sometimes the phrase knowledge of accountability is used, referencing James 4:17.

Since the Churches of Christ do not practice infant baptism, the baptism for remission of sins of those who have reached the age of accountability and who have chosen baptism has "coming of age" significance similar to that held by the rite of Confirmation in other Christian traditions, the B'nai Mitzvah within Judaism, or rites within other cultures.

Under the same principle of "knowledge of accountability", persons lacking the mental capacity to consciously choose between right or wrong are also not lost, as they are incapable of truly choosing wrong.

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Views on Satan

Satan is considered to be a literal being, not just a symbolic or allegorical representation of evil. He is seen as literally tempting Christ's followers away from their chosen path, usually by the use of human agents. Satan's power is seen to be considerable, although vastly inferior to that of God, who allows Satan to exist so that God's followers worship and follow Him as a true act of free will, not predestination. There is no standard position over the accuracy of the Lucifer story or Satan as a fallen angel; most churches take no position under the doctrine of silence.

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Miracles

Miraculous Gifts – Most members of Churches of Christ do not believe supernatural miraculous events occur in the current times. They believe that these gifts died with those that were given supernatural Spiritual gifts during the time of Jesus and the apostles, being that miracles were only needed to establish authority of teaching. Miracles ceased when "that which is perfect" or the completed inspired teachings of the apostles were complete.(1 Corinthians 13:8-10)

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Eschatology

In terms of eschatology, Churches of Christ are generally amillennial, although there are several (fewer than 100) congregations which are premillennial and follow the teachings of the late Robert Henry Boll (1875-1956) <ref>Robert Henry Boll page from the Restoration Movement pages at the Memorial University of Newfoundland</ref>. This group sponsors several schools in Louisville, Kentucky, under the name Portland Christian School system. It also holds two annual seminar series: the Kentucky/Indiana Christian Fellowship Week and the Central Louisiana Christian Fellowship Week.

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Worship-related practices and beliefs

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Suitable place of worship

Worship can take place at any gathering of church members. Baptism can take place in any suitable body of water allowing total immersion, and may be administered by anyone at any time of the day or day of the week. There is disagreement as to whether the person who administers the baptism must also be a church member.

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A capella congregational music

Most Churches of Christ practice a prohibition against instrumental music in services (a cappella), although this prohibition is not specifically enumerated in the New Testament. However, the early Church of Christ did not use instruments. Therefore, most Churches of Christ today follow that pattern. Ephesians 5:19 is used to show that singing is a matter of the heart. The view of no instrumental music is not unique to the Churches of Christ: see also Huldrych Zwingli: Music in the Church for an account of the development of the view in Reformation thought and the process of its inheritance by Restoration Movement theology.

There are three different historical positions among churches of Christ against instrumental music. The "principle of silence" argument states that since singing alone is specified when the New Testament speaks of music in worship, instrumental music is thus unauthorized and excluded; passages such as Hebrews 7:14 (cf. 8:4) are cited to demonstrate the exclusive nature of such specificity.

A second argument against instruments in worship is that such would be entertainment and thus worldly and inappropriate, but not necessarily false doctrine.

Another argument against instruments in worship is that since not all members can play instruments, they cannot possibly be commanded to do so in worship.

While Churches of Christ have historically opposed instrumental music in worship as unauthorized and sinful, more liberal congregations today take the position that it is permitted, though they may not choose to engage in it themselves.

There are no choruses or choirs in most Church of Christ congregations. Most churches practice only congregational singing with a single song leader. However, many larger churches have adopted "praise teams," small singing groups that sing special songs in worship, help teach new songs, and provide "sing along" assistance to the congregations.

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"The Lord's Supper" (Communion)

The Lord's Supper can be served anywhere members are gathered on Sunday; no particularly "sanctified" location nor specifically "authorized" individual is needed to administer communion (except that those administering communion are almost invariably male as a matter of belief that the Bible teaches that only men are authorized to lead in the worship service).

The practice is to partake in the Lord's Supper each Sunday (Acts 20:6). Theologically, some members believe in practicing closed communion, while most participate in open communion. Communion is generally served to participants in their seats (unlike many churches in which participants come to the front to receive it), and a non-member could often participate without disruption. In addition, many members assert based on 1 Corinthians 11:28 that it is up to each participant to "examine himself," not the church.

Grape juice is used almost exclusively for "The Lord's Supper" in the United States. However, the original practice within Churches of Christ in the Restoration Movement was using wine exclusively. This practice of the majority changed during the Prohibition Era with much controversy that is now mostly forgotten. A significant percentage today think alcohol should be generally forbidden.

Nevertheless, a small remnant of pre-Prohibition influenced conservatives and some progressives advocate literal wine as the "fruit of the vine." Wine is still used in some countries, such as Italy, where the drinking of wine is an historically accepted part of the culture.

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Racial integration within worship

The Church of Christ's development against the post-American Civil War racial backdrop of the American south produced debates on whether African-americans should be "permitted" to worship in "white" congregations. Following the American Civil War, some households among the Church of Christ were racially integrated, with white parents raising black children and bringing them to services in predominantly white congregations. This practice alarmed and infuriated critics who railed against it using the racist rhetoric of the period. A common charge was that racial inclusiveness in the context of a single congregation invited division by offended whites and was therefore Biblically forbidden as a divisive practice. The most extreme argued that black people were "beasts" and "without souls," and that black people had a greater tendency to commit rape than people of other races. <ref>Lipscomb, D. (1901) Editorial: The Negro His Crime and Treatment (Gospel Advocate, 19 September 1901, 600)</ref>

David Lipscomb, while maintaining his generation's attitudes on the social inequality of blacks and whites, militated against the racist position in the pages of the Gospel Advocate in a heated exchange published in 1907. Lipscomb pointed out that racially integrated congregations had been a fact of life for many congregations in the Church of Christ for years, that he himself had grown up with black children, and pointed to both New Testament example and the "principle of silence" in denying that any basis for racial segregation existed:

There can be no doubt as to religious duties and rights. "There can be neither Jew nor Greek, there can be neither bond nor free, there can be no male and female, for ye are all one man in Christ Jesus. And if ye are Christ's, then ye are Abraham's seed, heirs according to promise." (Gal. 3:28.) This means the Christians of every different nation, tribe, country, of every social or political position, have equal privileges and rights in the service of God. No one as a Christian or in the service of God has the right to say to another, "Thou shalt not," because he is of a different family, race, social, or political station. While these distinctions exist here, God favors or condemns none on account of them. Jesus Christ personates himself in the least and most despised of his disciples; and as we treat them, we treat him. "Inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me." (Matt 25:40 (KJV).) To object to any child of God participating in the service on account of his race, social or civil state, his color or race, is to object to Jesus Christ and to cast him from our association. It is a fearful thing to do. I have never attended a church that negroes did not attend....<ref>Lipscomb, David, et. al (1907) THE NEGRO IN THE WORSHIP--A CORRESPONDENCE</ref>.

The exchange did not write the final chapter on race attitudes in the Churches of Christ. Mirroring much of the surrounding culture of the American south, while some leaders in the Church of Christ supported the concepts of civil rights and attempted to operate schools for black members of the church, others either continued in an overtly racist attitude or, while acknowledging the validity of civil-rights-movement ideals of racial equality, either advocated an approach of gradualism or insisted that the church not involve itself with secular "organized agitation for reform." <ref>ACU Today - Spring 2000 "An Angry Peace: Race and Christian Education"</ref>.

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Common beliefs, practices, and prohibitions

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Variations in Practice

Because of the autonomous nature of Churches of Christ, practices vary greatly across the diverse body of congregations of the Churches of Christ. As a whole the following sections reflects practices considered to be standard, with a focus on those beliefs that distinguish the Churches of Christ from Protestant groups.

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Specialized Vocabulary

The Churches of Christ commonly use specialized vocabulary to circumvent common English usage which is in conflict with accepted doctrine. Words and phrases common to most protestant and/or evangelical churches are often absent or modified in the Churches of Christ.

The following examples may be helpful in interpreting the list of beliefs, teachings and prohibitions that follow. Many of these have the character of euphemism to outside ears, but among many church members the use of these terms is non-negotiable.

  • "church" - The word is often left uncapitalized in the name "Church of Christ" to emphasize that the churches are not a denomination.
  • "church building" - The purpose-built physical place of meeting of most congregations. The phrase reminds adherants that the unadorned term "church" always refers to the Church as the body of adherants to Church of Christ doctrine, never the physical building in which members of the church meet (see "church," above.)
  • "member of the church" - Some members of the Churches of Christ believe that only members of the Church of Christ are Christians. However, the English designation of "Christian" generally means anyone who calls himself a Christian. Thus the euphemism, "member of the church."
  • "religious" - Used instead of the word "Christian." For example, a conservative member of the Church of Christ might say "Religious Book Store," or "Religious Music" instead of "Christian Book Store," or "Christian Music," on the premise that only "real Christians", those found within the fellowship of his or her group, would actually make "Christian Music" or write truly "Christian" books.
  • "denomination" - Churches other than the Church of Christ, including the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches.
  • "Mid-Week Bible Study" - an additional church service, generally held on Wednesday evenings. Generally referred to in Protestant denominations as a "prayer meeting."
  • "invitation" - used where other groups would use the term "Altar call": 1. a designated time during worship, usually after the sermon, when the hearers of the sermon are invited to respond to the message of the sermon. 2. The message of the invitation itself.
  • "Sanctuary" becomes "auditorium" because of the belief that there is nothing particularly holy about the building.
  • "Pastor" is never used to mean "minister." The term "preacher," "evangelist," or "minister" is used instead, i.e. "youth pastor" becomes "youth minister." The term "pastor" (literally "shepherd") connotes a position of spiritual leadership, which in the Church of Christ is exclusively the purview of the elders of the Church of Christ. However, the denotation of the term "pastor" to indicate the pulpit minister in other churches means that the word "pastor" is rarely used within the Church of Christ to refer to elders.
  • "Minister of Music" is "song leader", or, in more progressive congregations, "worship leader," or "worship minister."
  • "Revival" becomes "gospel meeting" or "lectureship series."
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Resistance to Denominationalism

Generally, a belief that Churches of Christ are not a denomination, or that they are non-denominational. Most believe denominationalism itself is sinful, and hold that Christ established only one church. This doctrine is similar to earlier beliefs of Roman Catholicism.

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Closed Fellowship

Many members of the Churches of Christ practice "closed fellowship" (fellowshipping only fellow members of the Churches of Christ), while others would extend the ties of fellowship to members of evangelical Protestant denominations.

The issue of "fellowship" is hotly debated. For examples of advocacy of the closed fellowship position, see the Archives for Banner of Truth (Walter W. Pigg, editor.) For a specific example of the debate see Jubilee 2000 Revival Controversy.

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Teachings regarding gender roles

Women are not allowed to hold positions of spiritual authority over grown men (e.g., serve as elders, deacons, or preachers) based on the first purported epistle of Paul of Tarsus to Timothy, specifically 1 Timothy 2:12. This, however, is sometimes not adhered to in more liberal congregations. Most churches forbid women from leading public worship or teaching a bible study when grown men are present. However, women sometimes serve as coordinators of various ministries, including youth and education.

In contrast to some other conservative Christian traditions, the details of the command for women to dress modestly in the text surrounding 1 Timothy 2:12, such as the braiding of hair, and the wearing of gold, pearls or expensive clothes is understood to be a de-emphasis on these things and not prohibition. The statement that women will be "saved through childbearing" (NIV) is also considered to mean that the women will find fullfilment or be kept physically safe in childbirth if they "continue in faith, love, and holiness with propriety" (NIV) and not that they must bear a child to have spiritual salvation.

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No ordained clergy

There are no clergy and laity; all members are considered to be priests (1 Peter 2:9). Certain male members specialize in the field of teaching. These men are often called "Preachers," "Ministers," or "Evangelists." In mainstream Churches of Christ, ministers are generally paid for their work.

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Mid-Week Bible Study

Even though it is not specifically commanded in the New Testament, virtually all Church of Christ congregations have an additional "Mid-Week Bible Study," which is most commonly held on Wednesday evenings. Many congregations view this as an expedient to the commands to study the scriptures and evangelize the Christian religion.

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Vacation Bible School

In the United States, many congregations have "Vacation Bible School," a week-long series of daytime or evening church services geared toward teaching children, which take place during the summer and which include social and recreational activities. Like the Mid-Week Bible Studies, "VBS" (as it is commonly known) is not specifically commanded in the New Testament. However, many congregations view this as an expedient to the commands to study the scriptures and evangelize the Christian religion.

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Disfellowship (Withdrawal)

Disfellowship of a member, a form of church discipline which is similar to excommunication, is announced to the congregation by the elders, along with the basis of the decision to disfellowship the member.

Disfellowship is rare because typically those at variance become alienated from the congregation and either remove themselves voluntarily, or submit to other forms of discipline and return to compliance with Church of Christ doctrine.

The scriptures the church of Christ uses as justification for this pattern of disfellowship are Matthew 18:15-17 and 2 Thessalonians 3:6.

Disfellowship is performed at the congregational level, as there is no hierarchy above that level to enforce discipline.

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Religious v. Secular Observance of Holidays

Celebration of religious holidays (such as Christmas and Easter) as such is often discouraged, although secular observance of such days is usually tolerated. In recent years, this belief is in decline in many churches, and it is not unheard of for a church to have special events for such holidays or even to celebrate them with traditional religious significance. A number of churches, though, continue to practice complete rejection of holidays. Some churches use holidays for gospel meetings but it is not in observence of the holiday, but as an opportunity to call the unsaved and preach to them on a day that they do not work and have a chance to listen to the Gospel.

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Prohibition against social dance

Much social dancing is condemned as lewd and lascivious behavior. Folk dancing is considered acceptable but popular dancing, especially dancing with sexual overtones is frowned upon. The acceptability of social dance varies from congregation to congregation and is dependant on region of country and type of dance. A Church of Christ wedding ceremony is almost never followed by a reception with dancing (or alcohol).

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Divorce

Divorce, except for reasons of fornication, is condemned. Template:Bibleverse Remarriage in these cases is considered adultery, as usually is remarriage of the unfaithful spouse. Template:Bibleverse Exceptions are sometimes made when severe marital abuse or deception are present, but such interpretations differ between congregations. In addition, some churches (particularly among the non-institutional branch) differ in particulars relating to divorce and remarriage.

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Abortion

Abortion in most circumstances is considered to be a sin. Some congregations participate in organizations that promote adoption as an alternative to the practice.

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Homosexuality

Homosexual activity is seen as sin. Churches generally differentiate homosexual activity from homosexuality itself or homosexual people, often espousing the idea that while mere sexual orientation is not sinful per se, all homosexual acts are a choice. Many, however, claim that homosexual proclivity is not inherent in a person's nature, but a weakness to be overcome.

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Conscientious objection

Several members of the Churches of Christ have claimed conscientious objector status during wartime. This opinion was mainstream, at least in some circles, in the late 19th century and was the viewpoint frequently published in mainstream Church of Christ publications such as David Lipscomb's Gospel Advocate. This movement lost most of its currency in the Churches of Christ during World War II when 199<ref>Gingerich, Melvin (1949), Service for Peace, A History of Mennonite Civilian Public Service, p. 452, Mennonite Central Committee.</ref> members registered as conscientious objectors and served in Civilian Public Service camps, and has been fairly uncommon since World War II.

The contemporary Church of Christ is not a historical peace church, but it is still listed as such by the US military for consideration of conscientious objector status. Most churches in the UK consisted overwhelmingly of objectors. One notable post-WWII American conscientious objector is author William Kay Moser, who served two years in prison rather than serve in the Korean War.

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Other Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement bodies

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United States

The Churches of Christ were advanced during the American Restoration Movement of the 19th century. As in the New Testament, this movement recognized the body as "The Churches of Christ" or "Christian Churches."

After the American Civil War, there began to be divisions in this body over the issues of missionary societies and instrumental music in worship which reached a head in 1906 when the two groups formally split, agreeing to be listed separately in the religious census then conducted by the Bureau of the Census. Those holding to the prohibition of instrumental music are the Churches of Christ of today. The first Church to use the name was Knob Creek Church of Christ in Dukedom, Kentucky, which was founded in 1834 and still exists today.

After the schism between the Church of Christ and the Disciples of Christ in 1906, and hence separately from (although in some ways in parallel with) the subsequent development of the Churches of Christ, the Disciples of Christ experienced further schism. Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ (instrumental) congregations began to divide from the Disciples of Christ in the 20th century during the fundamentalist response to modernism. This division had solidified by the time of the 1960s.

Other groups related to the Restoration Movement were the Christian Connexion and The Christian Church, both of which merged into the Congregational Church during the 1930s: these denominations were comprised primarily of congregations in the northeastern United States. Separately in the 1930s, the Evangelical and Reformed Church formed from a merger of German Protestant denominations (primarily in the American South). These two merged groups eventually merged in the 1950s to become the United Church of Christ, a group now part of the Protestant Mainstream and unrelated to the Churches of Christ.

Some of the more progressive churches have associated themselves with an "emergent conversation/movement". It is unclear at present how significant this ideology is or what its impact will be in the future.

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Elsewhere

The Churches of Christ in Australia are the Australian Stone-Campbell group, and are named after the movement's name at the time of it's founding. Of the three current US groups, they are closest in belief and practice to the Disciples of Christ. A similar New Zealand group is the Associated Churches of Christ in New Zealand.

Most of the Churches of Christ in the United Kingdom became part of the United Reformed Church in 1981. Most of the remained became the Fellowship of Churches of Christ.

The Australian and New Zealand groups planted churches throughout the Pacific Islands, the United Kingdom group planted churches throughout the British Empire, and the American groups planted churches throughout the Americas and the rest of the world. These groups often used the name "Church of Christ" and were affiliated with the other churches of that name. While a few such churches still exist, many have merged with other groups.

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Disputes within the Church

See also: Post 1906 schisms
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Institutions

A major disagreement over the establishment of "institutions" at a level over that of the local congregations in order to serve works such as children's homes came to a head in the 1950s and 1960s. Today, those who disagree with this idea are referred to as the non-institutional or often by the pejoratives "anti-cooperation" or "anti." They represent approximately 15% of United States membership and are also represented by missionaries in other countries as well.

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Rebaptism controversy

The validity of believer baptisms performed by other religious groups such as Baptists is sometimes questioned. The debate is centered on whether or not a person must understand that baptism is in order to be saved rather than the response of one already saved. Many within the Churches of Christ consider such an understanding to be essential, although whether this position currently is or historically was held by the majority of members is hard to determine.

The Gospel Advocate publishing house out of Tennessee, as well as its long-time editor David Lipscomb and many Church of Christ and Restoration Movement leaders before him considered it not essential, and that a voluntary baptism done to obey the command to be baptized was valid whether further beliefs about the point of salvation were correct or incorrect.

The Firm Foundation, an influential publishing house out of Texas, was founded by Austin McGary in part to promote the opposite position, that a baptism without prior belief that baptism was the point of salvation was not valid at all.

Many congregations have and continue to fully support rebaptism as argued by McGary, though very few make such a belief a test of fellowship. The issue was not resolved per se, as both opinions still exist within the mainstream churches.

The issue generally opens when a Baptist or related Evangelical converts to the Church of Christ, and their particular congregation reflects more than one opinion on whether rebaptism is needed.

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Liberalism and conservatism

Use of the terms "liberal" to describe those churches and members that are more progressive and more willing to accept doctrines of the mainline Protestant denominations, and the term "conservative" to describe those churches who hold to the more traditional teachings of the Church of Christ, is common but sometimes controversial. In some circles one or both of these labels may be offensive.

In other religious contexts, "liberal" carries the connotation of a rejection of traditional Christian doctrines, such as the Incarnation. When used within the Church of Christ it generally does not carry that meaning, but it can be offensive because of that association.

Some members reject all of these labels, either because in their opinion it confuses issues of right and wrong with matters of preference or because of the perception that it contributes to division within the church. Others within the church may be proud of their conservative or liberal labels. Some may use alternate terms to show their point of view of the factions: "progressive," "faithful," "unfaithful," "old fashioned."

Within the non-institutional churches, the term "conservative" is generally taken to refer only to those churches that hold the non-institutional conviction, while the term "liberal" is often applied to all mainline churches of Christ that do not, even those that otherwise consider themselves to be "conservative."

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International Churches of Christ

What was called the International Churches of Christ (ICOC) (sometimes called "The Boston Movement" which was grounded in the Church of Christ "Crossroads Movement"), was often labeled a cult by mainstream congregations, had its origins in certain congregations of the Church of Christ. Since the late 1980s, however, some Church of Christ leaders had repudiated the ICOC as an apostatized, schismatic cult; the ICOC in turn declared itself to be a faithful remnant being called out of a dead or dying church, namely the mainstream Churches of Christ.

The ICOC saw tremendous percentage growth in comparison to the congregations led by the mainstream Churches of Christ, reaching approximately 134,000 members (compared to the several million members of mainstream churches of Christ). ICOC subsequently suffered a series of internal debates on matters ranging from the central authority claimed by founder Kip McKean to financial impropriety. ICOC is in a period of change that may not end for several years.

Representatives of the ICOC and the mainstream Churches of Christ attended reconciliation meetings at the 2004 Abilene Christian University lectureships.

See the Russell Paden thesis [1] for a fairly impartial examination of this subject.

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See also

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Notes

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External links

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General Websites

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Online Magazines

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Directories

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History and Sources

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International Churches of Christ

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Former Members and Internal Critical Views

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Miscellaneous

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