Battle of the Alamo

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{{Infobox Military Conflict |conflict=Battle of the Alamo |partof=the Texas Revolution (against Mexico) |image=Image:AlamoplanF0385.jpg |caption=Plan of the Alamo, by José Juan Sánchez-Navarro, 1836. |date=February 23–March 6, 1836 |place=San Antonio, Texas |place=San Antonio, Texas |result=Mexican pyrrhic victory |combatant1=Republic of Mexico |combatant2=Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas |commander1=Antonio López de Santa Anna Pérez de Lebrón |commander2=William Travis
Jim Bowie |strength1=1,600 in attack |strength2=183 to 250 |casualties1=300 to 400 dead |casualties2=183 to 250 dead }} The Battle of the Alamo was a 19th-century battle between the Republic of Mexico and the rebel Texan forces during the Texas Revolution. It took place at the Alamo mission in San Antonio, Texas (then known as "San Antonio de Béxar") in February and March of 1836. The 13-day siege ended on March 6 with the capture of the mission and the death of nearly all the Texan defenders, except for a few slaves, women and children. Despite the loss, the 13-day holdout stalled Mexican forces' progress and allowed Sam Houston to gather troops and supplies for his later successful battle at San Jacinto.

It is important to note that the defenders of the Alamo, as with all of the early battles in the Texas Revolution, were technically fighting for restoration of the previous Mexican Constitution of 1824 and not necessarily for actual independence from Mexico. It is highly unlikely that any of the defenders were even aware that independence had been formally declared before the end of the battle.

Contents

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Prelude to battle


Prior to 1821, Texas was part of the the Mexican colony of New Spain. After Mexican independence in 1821, Texas became part of Mexico and in 1824 became the northern section of Coahuila y Tejas. On 3 January 1823, Stephen F. Austin began a colony of 300 American families along the Brazos River in present-day Fort Bend County and Brazoria County, centered primarily in the area of what is now Sugar Land.

In 1835, Mexican President and General Antonio López de Santa Anna Pérez de Lebrón, abolished the Constitution of 1824 and proclaimed a new constitution that reduced the power of many of the provincial governments and increased the power of the Presidency. Since the end of hostilities with Spain ten years before, the Mexican government, and Santa Anna in particular, had been eager to reassert its control over the entire country and control of Texas was seen as particularly important as Santa Anna rightly perceived the province to be vulnerable to America's westward expansion.

Mexico's new interest in Texas was not popular with the colonists however, who felt themselves to be more economically and culturally linked to the United States than to Mexico and who had grown used to the relative autonomy that the old Constitution of 1824 had given them. At the same time, Santa Anna's increasingly ambitious seizure of dictatorial powers under the new contitution was causing unrest throughout all of Mexico. Hostilities in Texas began with the Battle of Gonzales on October 1, 1835 after which the Texan rebels quickly captured Mexican positions at La Bahía and San Antonio.

With the surrender of General Martín Perfecto de Cos and his garrison at San Antonio, there was no longer a Mexican military presence in Texas. Santa Anna decided to launch an offensive with the aim of putting down the rebellion. Minister of War José María Tornel and Maj. Gen. Vicente Filisola (1789–1850) proposed a seaborne attack to Santa Anna, which would have been easier on the troops and had been a proven means of expeditions into Texas since 1814. Santa Anna refused on the basis that this plan would take too long and the rebels in Texas might receive aid from the United States.

Santa Anna assembled an estimated force of 6,100 soldiers and 20 cannons at San Luis Potosí in early 1836, and moved through Saltillo, Coahuila, towards Texas. His army marched across the Rio Grande through inclement weather, including snowstorms in mountain passes, to suppress the rebellion. San Antonio de Béxar was one of his intermediate objectives; his ultimate objective was to capture the Texas government and restore the rule of the central or "Centralist" Mexican government over a rebellious state. He had earlier suppressed the rebellion in the state of Zacatecas in 1835.

Santa Anna and his army arrived in San Antonio de Béxar on February 23. It was a mixed force of regular infantry and cavalry units as well as activo reserve infantry battalions. They were equipped with the British Baker and the out-dated, short range but effective and deadly British Tower Musket, Mark III, or "Brown Bess" musket. The average Mexican soldier stood 5 ft 1 in (1.55 m), and many were recent conscripts with no previous combat experience. Although they were well-drilled, the Mexican army discouraged individual marksmanship. The initial forces were equipped with four 7 in (178 mm) howitzers, seven 4-pound (1.8 kg), four 6-pound (2.7 kg), four 8-pound (3.6 kg) and two 12-pound (5 kg) cannons.

Several of the Mexican officers were foreign mercenary veterans, including Vicente Filisola (Italy) and Antonio Gaona (Cuba), and General Santa Anna was a veteran of the Mexican War of Independence.

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The Alamo defenders

Lieutenant Colonel William Barret Travis now commanded the Texan regular army forces assigned to defend the old mission. In January 1836, he was ordered by the provisional government to go to the Alamo with volunteers to reinforce the 189 already there. Travis arrived in San Antonio on February 3 with 29 reinforcements. Within a short time, he had become the post's official commander, taking over from Col. James C. Neill, who promised to be back in twenty days after leaving to tend to a family illness.

Various other men had also assembled to help in the defensive effort, including a number of unofficial volunteers under the command of Jim Bowie (of Bowie knife fame). Travis and Bowie often quarreled over issues of command and authority, but as Bowie's health declined, Travis assumed overall command.

In the United States at the time, the siege of the Alamo was seen as a battle of American settlers against Mexicans, but many of the ethnic Mexicans in Texas (called Tejanos) in fact sided with the rebellion. Many viewed this struggle in similar terms with the American Revolution of 1776. The Tejanos wanted Mexico to have a loose central government which supported states rights as expressed in the Mexican Constitution of 1824. One Tejano combatant at the Alamo was Captain (later Colonel) Juan Nepomuceno Seguín, who was sent out as a dispatch rider before the final assault.

The defenders of the Alamo came from many places besides Texas. The youngest, Galba Fuqua, was 16, and one of the oldest, Gordon C. Jennings, was 57. The men came from 28 different countries and states. From Tennessee, came another small group of volunteers led by former Congressman and frontier legend Davy Crockett. The 12-man "Tennessee Mounted Volunteers" arrived at the Alamo on February 8.

Another group, the "New Orleans Greys", came from that city to fight as infantry in the revolution. The two companies comprising the Greys had participated in the Siege of Béxar in December. Most of the Greys then left San Antonio de Béxar for an expedition to Matamoros with the promise of taking the war to Mexico, but about two dozen remained at the Alamo.

Lt. Col. Travis was able to dispatch riders before the battle and as late as March 3 informing the Texas provisional government of his situation and requesting assistance. However, Sam Houston's Texas Army was not strong enough to fight through the Mexican Army and relieve the post. The provisional Texas government was also in disarray due to in-fighting among its members. Travis also sent several riders, including James Bonham (1808–1836), to Colonel James Fannin for help. Fannin (1804–1836), commander of over 450 Texas forces at Goliad 100 miles (160 km) southeast of the Alamo, attempted an unorganized relief march with 320 men and cannon on February 28 to the Alamo, but aborted the relief column due to poor transportation. Fannin and most of his men were slaughtered by a Mexican force after surrendering (the "Goliad Massacre").

On March 1, at about 1 a.m., 32 Texans led by Capt. George Kimbell and John W. Smith from the town of Gonzales, slipped through the Mexican lines and joined the defenders inside the Alamo. They would be the only response to Travis' plea for help. The group became known as the "Immortal 32." A letter written by one of the 32, Isaac Millsaps, details events inside the Alamo on the night before the siege. Some historians have argued that this letter is most likely a counterfeit.

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The final assault

At the end of 12 days the number of Mexican forces attacking the post was reported as high as 4,000 to 5,000, but only about 1,400 to 1,600 soldiers were used in the investment and the final assault. 6,500 soldiers had originally set out from San Luis Potosí, but illness and desertion had since reduced the force. The Mexican siege was scientific and professionally conducted in the Napoleonic-style. After a 13-day period in which the defenders were tormented with bands blaring at night (including buglers sounding the no-mercy call El Degüello), occasional artillery fire, and an ever closing ring of Mexicans cutting off potential escape routes, Santa Anna planned the final assault for March 6.

Lt. Col. Travis's final dispatches include a poignant example of the Texan spirit as the noose tightened around the Alamo. He wrote, "The enemy has demanded a surrender at discretion otherwise the garrison are to be put to the sword, if the fort is taken -- I have answered their demand with a cannon shot, & our flag still waves proudly from the walls -- I shall never surrender or retreat."

The Mexican army attacked the Alamo in four columns plus a reserve and a pursuit and security force, starting at around 05:30 AM. The first column of 300 to 400 men led by Martín Perfecto de Cos moved towards the northwest corner of the Alamo. The second was of 380 men commanded by Col. Francisco Duque. The third column comprised 400 soldiers led by Col. José María Romero. The fourth comprised 100 cazadores (light infantry) commanded by Col. Juan Morales. The attacking columns had to cover 200 to 300 yards (200 to 300 m) of open ground before they could reach the Alamo walls. To prevent any attempted escape by the fleeing Texans or reinforcements from coming in, Santa Anna placed 350 cavalry under Brig. Gen. Ramírez y Sesma to patrol the surrounding countryside.

The Texans initially pushed back one of the attacking columns, although Lt. Col. Travis died from a gunshot to the head, supposedly near the north wall. Bowie is believed to have died in his cot, and Crockett's death is a subject of controversy (see below). Santa Anna's remaining columns pressed forward and Cos' column breached the north wall. The Mexicans seized the Alamo by 6:30 that morning, after hand-to-hand combat, killing virtually all of the male defenders.

The victorious Mexicans released two dozen surviving women and children, as well as Bowie's slave Sam and Travis' slave Joe after the battle. Before disappearing into history, Joe told of seeing a slave named John killed in the Alamo assault and another black woman killed. Another reported survivor was Brigido Guerrero, a Mexican army deserter who had joined the Texan cause. He was able to convince the Mexican soldiers that he had been a prisoner held against his will. In addition, Henry Wornell (sometimes spelled Warnell in early accounts) was reportedly able to escape the battle, but died from his wounds three months later.

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Casualties

  • Mexican: Reports of the number of dead and injured vary from approximately 250 in the official Mexican account to 1,400 to 1,500 in later Texan accounts. Most historians believe there were approximately 300 to 400 Mexicans killed and 300 wounded, although the precise number is unknown. Santa Anna ordered the mayor of San Antonio to give the Mexicans a proper burial. One source indicates that some of the Mexican bodies, contrary to orders, were thrown into the river. Some Alamo historians are skeptical of this because it seems unlikely since Santa Anna planned to reoccupy the fort.
  • Texan: 183 to 250 Texian and Tejano bodies were found at the Alamo after the battle, though Santa Anna's official report back to Mexico City, dictated to his personal secretary Ramón Martínez Caro, stated 600 rebel bodies were found. Historians believe this to be a false claim. All but one of the bodies were burned by the Mexicans; the sole exception being Gregorio Esparza, who was buried rather than burned because his brother Francisco had served as an activo and had fought under General Cos in the Siege of Béxar.
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Texan Independence

Texas had declared independence on March 2. The delegates elected David G. Burnet as Provisional President and Lorenzo de Zavala as Vice-President. The men inside the Alamo likely never knew this event had occurred. Houston still held his rank of supreme military commander. The Texan Army never numbered more than 2,000 men at the time of the Alamo siege. Successive losses at Goliad, Refugio, Matamoros and San Antonio de Béxar, reduced the army to about 1,000 men.

On April 21, at the Battle of San Jacinto, Santa Anna's 1,250-strong force was defeated by Sam Houston's army of about 910 men, who used the now-famous battle cry, "Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad!" The Mexican losses for the day were about 650 killed with 600 taken prisoner. Texan losses were about 9 killed and 18 wounded. Santa Anna was captured the following day, dressed in a common soldier's jacket, having discarded his finer clothing in hopes of escaping. He issued orders that all Mexican troops under the command of Vicente Filisola (1789–1850) and José de Urrea (1795–1849) were to pull back into Mexico.

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Controversies of the Alamo

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The line in the sand

A legend exists that on March 3, March 4, or March 5, Lt. Col. Travis drew a line in the sand with his sword and invited all those who were willing to stay, and presumably to die, to cross over the line. Allegedly, the invalid Jim Bowie was carried across the line at his request. According to one variant of the story, all but one defender crossed the line. Louis (or Lewis) "Moses" Rose, said to be a French soldier who had fought under Napoleon in Russia before arriving in Texas, allegedly slipped out of the Alamo. After evading the Mexican forces by moving at night, Rose is said to have taken shelter with the family of William P. Zuber to whom he told the tale of his escape. In 1873, Zuber (his son) published a version of the story, which has not been historically documented. The phrase "drawing a line in the sand" has remained part of English jargon for taking a stand with no compromise. This account is carried in numerous Texas histories, including Steven Kellerman's The Yellow Rose of Texas, the Journel of American Folklore, and numerous other histories of the time. A moving account of this "line in the dust" story and Bowie's being carried over in a cot can be found online in a city guide to San Antonio and the Alamo shrine.

Before the war ended, Santa Anna ordered that a red flag be raised from San Fernando cathedral indicating to the defenders inside the Alamo that no quarter would be given. According to the controversial José Enrique de la Peña diary, several defenders who had not been killed in the final assault on the Alamo were captured by Col. Manuel Fernández Castrillón and were presented to Santa Anna, who personally ordered their deaths. It is speculated that among the six prisoners was Davy Crockett. De la Peña also states that Crockett attempted to negotiate a surrender with Santa Anna, but was turned down on the grounds of 'no guarantees for traitors'. However, there is little evidence to support this. Still, some people believe that Crockett went down struggling to stay alive when he was spotted by Santa Anna's army after the 12 day struggle.

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Flags of the Alamo

After the battle, Mexican soldiers discovered the company flag of the New Orleans Greys and sent it to Mexico City as proof of U.S. involvement. It is now the property of the National Historical Museum in Mexico City. No one knows which flag flew over the Alamo during the battle. One flag of note was the Mexican tri-color flag with the numbers "1824" set in the middle denoting the Constitution of 1824. Another flag might have been the Mexican tri-color with two stars in the middle denoting Coahuila y Tejas. The flag issue thus remains unsolved.

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See also

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Further reading

  • Dingus, Anne, The Truth About Texas, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company (1995) ISBN 0-87719-282-0
  • Nofi, Albert A., The Alamo and The Texas War for Independence, Da Capo Press (1992) ISBN 0-306-81040-9
  • Crisp, James E., Sleuthing the Alamo, Oxford University Press (2005) ISBN 0-19-516-349-4
  • Hardin, Stephen L., Texian Iliad, Austin: University of Texas Press (1994) ISBN 0-292-73086-1
  • Lord, Walter, A Time to Stand,; Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press (1961) ISBN 0-8032-7902-7
  • Davis, William C., Lone Star Rising: The Revolutionary Birth of the Texas Republic, Free Press (2004) ISBN 0-684-86510-6
  • Hardin, Stephen L., The Alamo 1836, Santa Anna's Texas Campaign, Osprey Campaign Series #89, Osprey Publishing (2001).
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External links

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