Hijab
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- Note: The word "Hijab" is often used in news reports and common use, by both Muslims and non-Muslims, to refer to a headscarf. This specific use is discussed below. In Islamic scholarship, ħijāb has a larger meaning: dressing modestly. This article discusses the broader meaning of the term.
Ħijāb (Arabic: حجاب) is the Arabic term for barrier or dressing modestly. The Qur'an orders Muslims to dress in a "modest" fashion.
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The Qur'anic injunctions
- Verse 33:59 orders believing women to "draw their jalābib close round them (when they go out)".
- Verse 24.31 reads: "And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their khumūr over their bosoms and not display their beauty except to their husbands, their fathers, their husband's fathers, their sons, their husbands' sons, their brothers or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their women, or the (female) slaves whom their right hands possess, or old male servants who lack vigour, or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex; and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments. And O ye Believers! turn ye all together towards God, that ye may attain Bliss."
Jalābib is the plural of jilbab (derived from Old Ethiopic gəlabib "cloaks"); khumūr is the plural of khimar. Islamists insist that the garments known today as jilbab and khimar are the very garments demanded by the Qur'an.
Most Qur'an translators and commentators translate the Arabic as veils, head-coverings, shawls, and other English words with a general rather than a specific meaning. See [1] for a collection of Qur'an translations, compared verse by verse.
Ahādīth relating to dress
The ahādīth (singular hadith), or oral traditions relating the early Muslim community, were transmitted orally for more than a century before the first collections were written down. The hadith collections accepted as canonical by Sunni Muslims took their final form some three centuries after Muhammad's death. Many Muslims trust these collections implicitly; academic historians are much more apt to regard them as reflecting the views of the hadith collectors rather than early Muslim practice.
- Narrated Umm Atiyya: We were ordered to bring out our menstruating women and screened women to the religious gatherings and invocation of the Muslims on the two Eid festivals. These menstruating women were to keep away from the musalla. A woman asked, "O Messenger of Allah! What about one who does not have a cloak?". He said, "Let her borrow the cloak of her companion". (Bukhari, Book 8, Number 347)
- The Arabic word translated "cloak" is jilbab. Contemporary Islamists insist that the jilbab worn today is the same garment mentioned in the Qur'an and the hadith; most translators have chosen to use less specific terms.
- Narrated Anas: I know (about) the ħijāb more than anybody else. Ubai ibn Ka'b used to ask me about it. God's Apostle became the bridegroom of Zaynab bint Jahsh whom he married at Medina. After the sun had risen high in the sky, the Prophet invited the people to a meal. God's Apostle remained sitting and some people remained sitting with him after the other guests had left. Then God's Apostle got up and went away, and I too, followed him till he reached the door of ˤA'isha's room. Then he thought that the people must have left the place by then, so he returned and I also returned with him. Behold, the people were still sitting at their places. So he went back again for the second time, and I went along with him too. When we reached the door of ˤA'isha's room, he returned and I also returned with him to see that the people had left. Thereupon the Prophet hung a curtain between me and him and the Verse regarding the order for ħijāb was revealed. (Bukhari, Volume 7, Book 65, Number 375) [2]
- See also Muslim, Book 008, Number 3334.
- Narrated ˤA'isha: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: God does not accept the prayer of a woman who has reached puberty unless she wears a veil. (Abu Dawud, Book 2, Number 0641) [3]
- Abū Dawud is considered the third most authentic collection (after Bukhari and Muslim). However, not all hadiths in Abu Dawud are authentic.
- Narrated ˤA'isha: Asmā', daughter of Abū Bakr, entered upon the Apostle of God (peace be upon him) wearing thin clothes. The Apostle of God (peace be upon him) turned his attention from her. He said: O Asmā', when a woman reaches the age of menstruation, it does not suit her that she displays her parts of body except this and this, and he pointed to her face and hands. (Abu Dawud, Book 32, Number 4092) [4]
- The collector, Abū Dawud, considered this hadith weak. Some later scholars have disagreed with Abū Dawud.
- It was narrated that Umm Salama said: When the words "draw their cloaks (veils) all over their bodies" were revealed, the women of the Ansār went out as if there were crows on their heads because of the way they covered themselves. (Abū Dawud, 4101)
- Abū Dawud classed this hadith as authentic.
- ˤA'isha said: "May God have mercy on the first Muhajir women. When God revealed the words "and to draw their veils all over their bosoms" [an-Nūr 24:31] they tore their aprons and covered their faces with them." (Bukhari, 4480; Abū Dawud, 4102)
- This translation may be problematic; it is unclear what Arabic words have been translated as "veil", "apron", "face" and "bosom".
Problems of interpretation
These injunctions may have been clear to the earliest Muslims, but their exact meaning is less clear to later Muslims. We do not know precisely what seventh century CE Arab men and women wore or what was then considered modest or immodest. How do these rules apply to Muslims in later times, in different societies, wearing different clothing?
Scholarly interpretation of the injunctions
Various Islamic scholars have interpreted the meaning of ħijāb in different ways.
Although certain general standards are widely accepted, there has been little interest in narrowly prescribing what constitutes modest dress for Muslim men. Most mainstream scholars say that men should cover themselves from the navel to the knees; a minority say that the ahādīth that are held to require this are weak and possibly inauthentic. They argue that there are ahādīth indicating that the Islamic prophet Muħammad wore loose clothing that uncovered his thigh when riding camels, and hold that if Muħammad believed that this was permissible, then it is surely permissible for other Muslim males.
As a practical matter, however, the opinion that Muslim men must cover themselves between the navel and the knees is predominant, and most Muslims believe that a man who fails to observe this requirement during salat must perform the prayer again, properly covered, in order for it to be valid.
More detailed scholarly attention has been focused on prescribing female dress. Most scholars agree that the basic requirements are that when in the presence of someone of the opposite sex other than a close family member (mahram), a woman should cover her body, and walk and dress in a way which does not draw sexual attention to her. Some scholars go so far as specify exactly which areas of the body must be covered. In many cases, this is everything save the face and hands. A minority view requires everything save the eyes to be covered; this view, like all such rulings, does not exist in a vacuum, but is part of an ongoing dynamic involving both scholarly influence and actual social custom.
In the presence of mahrams, a woman should at least cover her sexual organs. In private, in the presence of her husband, there are no requirements for coverage (and, indeed, eroticism is promoted in this context).
Most scholars agree that the rules of ħijāb can be waived if following them would result in risk of death or extreme hardship. (See the article on ikrah, or physical compulsion.)
In one well-publicized case in 2002, Saudi religious police (mutaween) effectively killed fifteen female students by not allowing them to flee a burning school. The students were not sufficiently veiled in the opinion of the mutaween.
Cultural practices and controversy
Just as Muslim scholars differ on what should be covered, or what may be exposed, Muslim communities have interpreted ħijāb in many ways. Different Muslims have different practices according to their interpretation, and according to their circumstances. Some women choose freely to adopt very conservative interpretations, and even state they enjoy the lifestyle this provides.
Other women, however, adopt a more modest style of dress because of pressure from others. Such pressure can be extreme; there are many cases of Muslims carrying out honor killings against members of their own families for perceived violations of ħijāb standards, despite this practice's unlawfulness in Islam. [5]. Critics of conservative dress point out that while many claim the ħijāb does not signify oppression, those for whom it does are not necessarily free to state their true views on the matter, and certainly increased use of conservative dress strengthens the hand of those who would prefer that all women (or at least all Muslim women) dress conservatively, including those who would use coercion to achieve that end.
History of ħijāb
Contemporary Islamic dress
Like most people, Muslim men and women generally dress according to the custom of the country in which they live, modifying styles as necessary in order to observe whatever degree of modesty they or their community think appropriate. This requirement usually falls lightly on men, wherever they live. Muslim women, however, must sometimes make difficult choices.
Image:Muslim Dress Billboard.jpg
In some Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia or Iran, women must wear the national version of Islamic dress or face punishment by religious police. (See Strict versions of women's modest dress below.)
In most Muslim countries there are no such laws, but family and society still expect a woman to dress modestly, as locally defined. Usually this is some variation of long-sleeved dresses, long blouses or pants, and a scarf or veil over the hair. Rebels will face family pressure and social scorn.
Tradition is strongest in the countryside. Cities are usually more relaxed and urban women can dress in the latest Western styles without fear of public taunts.
Muslim women living in predominantly non-Muslim countries may face social pressures to dress like their schoolmates or workmates, on the one hand, and to dress for their families and their mosques, on the other hand. The situation is complicated by rising prejudice against Muslims in many countries, so that a woman wearing obviously "Muslim" garb may have to endure public harassment. Conversely non-Muslim women living in predominantly Muslim countries and not observing local dress customs also endure harassment.
"Modest dress" can also pose a problem when school, military or work uniforms are required. These uniforms may be modest by local standards but some Muslim women feel that they are too revealing. Sometimes a compromise can be negotiated; sometimes authorities insist that local mores be followed. A case in point is the recent (2004) furor over the French government's ban on religious wear (large crosses, yarmulkes, turbans, and headscarves) in public schools. Many French Muslims felt that this ruling was in fact directed against Muslim schoolgirls who wore headscarves.
However, it should be noted that one survey showed that 49% of the Muslim women (whether they wore the ħijāb prior to the law or not) supported the ban, while 43% opposed it (the rest failed to comment). [6].
Recently, wearing the niqāb, a more extreme form of ħijāb that covers the face, was made illegal in Belgium. The Netherlands is also considering a similar ban [7].
Women can also choose to wear styles that are more ostentatiously modest than local mores require, usually as a sign of Islamic enthusiasm and exuberant piety. A girl who wore jeans and T-shirts last week may turn up in black robes and full face veil. Some Western converts to Islam, such as Sultaana Freeman, have taken such enthusiasm to extremes, refusing to show their faces for identity-card photos and facing fines and jail sentences as a result. Most Islamic scholars deprecate this kind of attention-seeking behavior.
Strict versions of women's modest dress
Image:Muslim woman in Yemen.jpg A number of cultures, principally in Arab countries and parts of South Asia, take the requirement for female modesty beyond that accepted by other Muslim communities. In these cultures, this means that women must be completely covered with veils or cloaks when outside their home.
- Afghanistan's burqa is the most extreme example of this belief: not even a woman's eyes are visible. Typically, a burqa is composed of many yards of light material pleated around a cap that fits over the top of the head. There is an embroidered openwork grille where the burqa passes over the eyes. Under the Taliban, the burqa was obligatory. Under the current government, it may or may not be worn.
- The Saudi Arabian version of modest dress is composed of abaya or loose robe, ħijāb or headcovering and niqāb or face veil. The Saudi niqāb usually leaves a long open slot for the eyes; the slot is held together by a string or narrow strip of cloth. Roaming religious police enforce female modesty. Abaya and ħijāb are required; the niqāb is optional.
- While Pakistan has no laws enforcing ħijāb, there are many parts of the country where there is strong social pressure for women to observe ħijāb, or purdah, as it is called in Persian. Many Pakistani women who observe purdah wear a garment called the pak-chadar, a headscarf with attached veil. However, there are also many Pakistani women who simply wear a dupatta or chunari to cover their heads. These are long scarves, often made of a light material, that match the woman's garments.
- There are no laws enforcing ħijāb in India, but in some conservative, Muslim-majority areas, there is social pressure to cover. Some Indian women wear the burqa, although many content themselves with dupatta or chunari.
- A relatively less strict (though still considerably restrictive) interpretation is that of the current Iranian government, which requires women to wear loose-fitting coats or cloaks in public, as well as a head scarf that covers the hair.
Current use of the word "ħijāb" in media and activism
The word "ħijāb" is frequently used for the headscarf worn by many Muslim women around the world with various forms of dress, from jeans-and-shirts to Shalwar Qameez, saris and business suits. It most often refers to a square scarf which is folded diagonally and worn over the head to cover the hair, ears and throat, but not the face. In Malaysia the headscarf is known as a tudung.
The word used in the Qu'ran for a headscarf or veil is khimar (Arabic: خمار). Many people argue that this word for a headscarf should be used instead of ħijāb. Interpreting ħijāb only as a headscarf is incorrect. However, this usage is extremely common in Western societies. The controversy over the wearing of "ħijāb" in the context of the French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools refers only to the headscarf, not to modest dress in general.
See also
- Veil
- List of hats and headgear
- Tzeniut
- Habit, the distinctive clothing of certain religious orders
References
- El Guindi, Fadwa -- Veil: Modesty, Privacy, and Resistance, Berg, 1999.