Islamic science
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- This is a subarticle to Islamic studies and science.
Islamic science is science in the context of traditional religious ideas of Islam, including its ethics and philosophy. A Muslim engaged in this field is called a Muslim scientist.
This is not the same as science as conducted by any Muslim in a secular context. However, certain liberal movements in Islam eschew the practice of Islamic science, arguing that science should be considered separate from religion. For example, see the Fatwa Against Production, Stockpiling and use of Nuclear Weapons
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Qur'anic passages regarding Science
Muslims quote some verses from the Qur'an where God is encouraging people, Muslims and non-Muslims alike, to engage in different scientific studies, in order to conclude the existence of God.
- Note: all verses are translated by Sher Ali.
Science in general
- Soon WE will show them Our Signs in farthest regions of the earth and among their own people until it becomes manifest to them that it is the truth. It is not enough that thy Lord is Witness over all things? Aye, they are, surely, in doubt concerning the meeting with their Lord; aye, HE, certainly, encompasses all things.
History and archeology
- Say, `Go about in the earth and see what was the end of those who treated the Prophets as liars.'
- And We made the children of Israel to pass through the sea, then Firon and his hosts followed them for oppression and tyranny; until when drowning overtook him, he said: I believe that there is no god but He in Whom the children of Israel believe and I am of those who submit.
- What! Now! while thou wast disobedient before this and wast of the mischief-makers.
- So this day WE will save thee in thy body alone that thou mayest be a Sign to those who come after thee. And surely many of mankind are heedless of Our Signs.
Astronomy
- In the creation of the heavens and the earth and in the alternation of the night and the day there are indeed Signs for men of understanding.;
- Who has created seven heavens in harmony. No incongruity canst thou see in the creation of the Gracious God. Then look again. Seest thou any flaw?
Embryology
- Verily, WE created man from an extract of clay; Then WE placed him as a drop of sperm in a safe depository; Then We made the seed a clot, then We made the clot a lump of flesh, then We made (in) the lump of flesh bones, then We clothed the bones with flesh, then We caused it to grow into another creation, so blessed be Allah, the best of the creators. [1]
Atmospheric Science
- Seest thou not that ALLAH drives the clouds slowly, then joins them together, then piles them up so that thou seest rain issue forth from the midst thereof? And HE sends down from the sky clouds like mountains wherein is hail, and HE smites therewith whom HE pleases, and turns it away from whom HE pleases. The flash of its lightning may well-nigh take away the sight. [2]
Geology
- Have WE not made the earth as a bed, And the mountains as pegs?
- And HE has placed in the earth firm mountains lest it quake with you and rivers and routes that you may find the way to your destination. [3]
Physical cosmology
- Do not the disbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were a closed up-mass, then WE opened them out? And WE made of water every living thing. Will they not then believe?
- Then HE turned to the heaven, while it was something like smoke, and said to it and to the earth; `Come ye both of you in obedience, willingly or unwillingly.' They said, `We come willingly. [4]
History
Rise of the Islamic science
Template:Main Typical accounts of world history teach that civilisation passed through the following periods:
- Ancient Greek period (BC)
- Ancient Roman period (0-500 AD)
- Dark Ages (500-1000 AD)
- Renaissance (1350-1600 AD)
- Industrial Revolution (1800/1900 AD)
- Twentieth century (2000-).
In the Muslim view, the term "Dark Ages" is Eurocentric in nature, and implies that for approxiately 1,000 years nothing of value happened either scientifically or intellectually: no discovery, no invention, no progress.
Muslims feel that this is censoring the role of the Islamic world to science. In fact, they prefer to call it the "Muslim Era", since Islam just began then and in a short time produced the Islamic Golden Age [5].
Islam began to grow in the 7th century and in the following centuries, the Islamic Empire expanded to include Northern Africa, Middle East and parts of Spain. The capital of this powerful empire was Baghdad, which became a major cultural centre, favored by its location at the crossroads of the Eastern and Western worlds.
Science was encouraged by the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad and they established the "House of Wisdom", an academy of science where they gathered important Sanskrit and Greek manuscripts and paid scholars to study and translate them. Some of these manuscripts were thus saved for humanity only through the Arabic medium.
Thus, Muslims feel that the era that followed the Romans Era and is commonly referred to as the "Dark Ages", should fairly be named the "Muslim Era".
The important contributions made by Islamic scholars can be seen in many words still in use today: alkali, algebra, alchemy, alcohol, Aldebaran, Altair, Algol, alembic, algorithm, almanac, Almagest, through to zenith and zero.
Decay of Islamic science
In the eleventh century muslim science and the numbers of scientists started to decline. After the thirteenth century they would still produce occasional scientists but they were the exception, not the rule (see list of Islamic scholars). One reason for the scientific decline can be traced back to the tenth century when the orthodox school of Ash'ari challenged the more rational school of Mu'tazili theology, or even earlier when caliph Al-Mutawakkil (847-861) started to suppress the Mu'tazili theology. The orthodox muslims fought the shia muslims and other muslim branches, as well as several invaders(mongols, crusaders etc) on the islamic lands between 1000 – 1300. In the end the sunni orthodox were victorious and the more strict Ash'ari school replaced Mu'tazili thoughts in the islamic lands. That replacement and numerous wars and conflicts created a climat which made islamic science less successful than before.
With the fall of Muslim Spain in 1492, scientific and technological initiative generally passed to Christian Europe and led to what we now call the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. The fiqh of Islamic Law froze more or less along classical/medieval lines, and no longer encouraged science.
Modern Islamic philosophy of science
Modern Islamic philosophy has, in response to challenges of secular science and concerns that secular society is unwilling or unable to limit its uses of dangerous technology, especially nuclear weapon or biotechnology, begun to look at the origins of science to determine what ethics or limits can or should be imposed, and what goals or visions are appropriate for science. Key figures in these debates are:
- Ismail al-Faruqi who proposed an Islamization of knowledge
- Seyyed Hossein Nasr who focuses on interpretations of "khalifa"
- Ziauddin Sardar who advocates the creation of a modern Islamic science to tackle problems facing Muslims today
- Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas who first coined the phrase "Islamization of knowledge".
- Muhammad Nijatullah Siddiqui who focuses more specifically on Islamic economics
- F. Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, explored the central importance of knowledge in Muslim civilization and explains how it generated "science". It is more a work of history. Also of some note in these debates have been
- Nasim Butt, Science and Muslim Societies, an introduction
- Ahmad Y. al-Hassan and Donald R. Hill, Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History
Fields
This are some of the fields Islamic science have worked with:
Scientific method
The scientific method in its modern form arguably developed in early Muslim philosophy, in particular, using experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories, citation ("isnad"), peer review and open inquiry leading to development of consensus ("ijma" via "ijtihad"), and a general belief that knowledge reveals nature honestly. During the middle ages, significant advances in mathematics, medicine, astronomy, engineering, and many other fields originated from the Islamic civilization. During this time Islamic philosophy developed and was often pivotal in scientific debates–key figures were usually scientists and philosophers.
Prominent Iranian-Arab scientist, Ibn Al-Haitham, used the scientific method to obtain the results in his book Optics. In particular, he performed experiments and used the scientific method to show that the intromission theory of vision supported by Aristotle was scientifically correct, and that the emission theory of vision supported by Ptolemy and Euclid was wrong. It's known that Roger Bacon (who is usually erroneously given the credit for having founded the scientific method) was familiar with Ibn Al-Haitham's work.
Science was one of the most powerful areas of the Islamic Culture.
Mathematics
Ancient Greek mathematics had an important role in the evolution of Islamic science, especially works like Euclid's classic geometry, and it is thought that they helped create the era of Islamic scientific innovation that lasted until the 14th century. Many ancient Greek books are only known because they were transcribed by Islamic scholars.
Medicine
Prophetic Medicine (al-tibb) was a genre of medical writing intended as an alternative to the Greek-based medical system (See:Galen). It advocated the traditional medical practices of Muhammad's time (those mentioned in the Qur'an). Al-tibb therapy did not require the patient's undergoing any surgical procedures.
The "Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah", with its introduction on measles and smallpox was also very influential in Europe.
Astronomy
See also
- List of Islamic terms in Arabic
- Philosophy of science
- Islamic banking
- Applied ethics
- Islamic Golden Age
- List of Iranian scientists
- Ophthalmology in medieval Islam
- Timeline of Islamic science and technology
- Keith L. Moore
- Professor Tejatat Tejasen
External links
- History of Islamic Science
- http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/introduction/woi_knowledge.html
- http://www.moesbooks.com/cgi-bin/moe/24308.html
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