Irish nominals
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The nominals of Irish include the nouns, the definite article, and the adjectives. The declension of these forms is discussed on this page. (For pronouns, see Irish morphology.)
Contents |
Nouns
Gender
Nouns in Irish are divided into two genders, masculine and feminine. While gender should be learned when the noun is learned, there are some rules that can be followed:
In general, words ending in a broad consonant are masculine, while words ending in a slender consonant are feminine.
There are some exceptions, mostly dealing with specific endings and suffixes; for example, words ending in -óir/-eoir and -ín (with a slender Template:IPA and Template:IPA respectively) are masculine, while words ending in -óg/-eog (with a broad Template:IPA) are feminine. This leads to some unexpected gender assignments, such as cailín 'girl' (masculine), and gasóg 'boy scout' (feminine).
Case
Irish has four cases: common (nominative), vocative, genitive, and dative.
Nominative
The nominative is used in the following functions:
- Sentence subject
- Tá an cat ag ól. 'The cat is drinking.'
- Sentence object
- Bhris Seán an fhuinneog. 'Seán broke the window.'
- Predicate of the copula
- Is amadán é. 'He is an idiot.'
- Object of the prepositions gan 'without' and go dtí 'up to'
- gan an t-airgead 'without the money'
- go dtí an t-am 'up to the time'
Vocative
The vocative is used in direct address, and is always preceded by the particle a, which triggers lenition. (In spoken Irish this particle is often omitted, especially before a vowel sound.) The first declension is the only declension in which the vocative is distinct from the nominative.
- Cá bhfuil tú, a mhic? 'Where are you, son?'
- A Sheáin, tar anseo! 'Seán, come here!'
Genitive
The genitive indicates possession and material of composition:
- hata an fhir 'the man's hat'
- clann na mná 'the woman's children'
- coinnleoirí an easpaig 'the bishop's candelabra'
- fáinne óir 'a ring of gold, a golden ring'
- bróga leathair 'shoes of leather, leather shoes'
The object of a verbal noun also requires the genitive:
- ag caitheamh airgid 'spending money'
The object of a compound preposition is in the genitive. Formally, these prepositions are actually prepositional phrases.
- ar chúl an dorais 'behind the door' (lit. 'on the back of the door')
- ar feadh míosa 'one month long' (lit. 'for the duration of one month')
- ar son na hÉireann 'for Ireland's sake'
Dative
The dative is used with the object of most simple prepositions except gan and go dtí. In the standard language, the dative of a noun is identical to the nominative, but some dialects have distinct datives in the second and fifth declensions. Even in the standard language, Éire 'Ireland' has a distinct dative: Éirinn.
- ag an athair 'at the father'
- as an teach 'out of the house'
- ar an arán 'on the bread'
- in oráiste 'in an orange'
- go hifreann 'to hell'
- leis an airgead 'with the money'
- ó Éirinn 'from Ireland'
Declension
There are five recognized declensions in Irish. The makeup of the declensions depends on three factors:
- the gender of the noun
- the formation of the genitive singular
- relation of genitive singular to nominative plural
The following chart describes the characteristics of each declension class:
| Nom. sing. ends with: | Gen. sing. ends with: | Gender | |
|---|---|---|---|
| First declension | Broad consonant | Slender consonant | Masculine |
| Second declension | Broad or slender consonant | -e/-í | Feminine |
| Third declension | Slender or broad consonant | -a | Masculine or feminine |
| Fourth declension | Vowel or -ín | (no change) | Masculine or feminine |
| Fifth declension | Vowel or slender consonant | Broad consonant | Mostly feminine |
First
The first declension is made up of masculine nouns. The nominative singular ends in a broad consonant, which is made slender in the genitive singular. The most common formation of the plural has the opposite pattern: the nominative ends in a slender consonant, the genitive in a broad consonant.
| bád 'a boat' | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative/Dative | bád Template:IPA | báid Template:IPA |
| Vocative | a bháid Template:IPA | a bháda Template:IPA |
| Genitive | báid Template:IPA | bád Template:IPA |
When Template:IPA in the gen. sing. and nom. pl. of a polysyllabic word is made slender, it also becomes voiced, thus:
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA > Template:IPA. Template:IPA becomes Template:IPA, and is written -(a)igh.
| marcach 'a horseman' | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative/Dative | marcach Template:IPA | marcaigh Template:IPA |
| Vocative | a mharcaigh Template:IPA | a mharcacha Template:IPA |
| Genitive | marcaigh Template:IPA | marcach Template:IPA |
Some nouns undergo a vowel change before the slender consonant of the genitive singular/nominative plural:
- ball, baill Template:IPA - an (internal) organ, component part
- bonn, boinn Template:IPA - a sole, coin
- ceann, cinn Template:IPA - a head
- fear, fir - a man
- iasc, éisc - a fish
- mac, mic Template:IPA - a son (Note: The first consonant is made slender in the gen.sg./nom.pl. as well!)
- poll, poill Template:IPA - a hole
Many words of this declension form the plural with one of the endings -(a)í, -ta, -tha, -anna. These are known as "weak plural" endings, which means the genitive plural is identical to the nominative plural. Some examples:
- aonach, Gen. Sg. aonaigh, Pl. aontaí - a fair
- bealach, Gen. Sg. bealaigh, Pl. bealaí - a way
- carr Template:IPA, Gen. Sg. cairr Template:IPA, Pl. carranna Template:IPA - a car
- glór, Gen. Sg. glóir, Pl. glórtha - a voice
- leanbh, Gen. Sg. linbh, Pl. leanaí - a child
- néal, Gen. Sg. néil, Pl. néalta - a cloud
- rós, Gen. Sg. róis, Pl. rósanna - a rose
- samhradh, Gen. Sg. samhraidh, Pl. samhraí - a summer
- scéal, Gen. Sg. scéil, Pl. scéalta - a story
- toradh, Gen. Sg. toraidh, Pl. torthaí - fruit
Some nouns have a strong plural (a plural where the genitive is different from the nominative) in -a:
- ceart, Gen. Sg. cirt, Nom. Pl. cearta, Gen. Pl. ceart - a right
- cleas, Gen. Sg. clis, Nom. Pl. cleasa, Gen. Pl. cleas - a trick
- úll, Gen. Sg. úill, Nom. Pl. úlla, Gen. Pl. úll - an apple
Other weak plural formations are found in:
- bóthar, bóthair; bóithre - road
- breitheamh, breithimh; breithiúna - judge
- briathar, briathair; briathra - verb
- cloigeann, cloiginn; cloigne - skull
- doras, dorais; doirse - door
- ollamh, ollaimh; ollúna - professor
- solas, solais; soilse - light
Second
The second declension is made up of mostly feminine nouns, and features a nominative singular form that can end in either a broad or a slender consonant. The genitive singular ends in a slender consonant followed by -e. The most common plural form has a broad consonant followed by -a in the nominative, and a broad consonant alone in the genitive. The vocative is the same as the nominative, as is the dative in the standard language.
| bróg 'a shoe' | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative/Vocative/Dative | bróg Template:IPA | bróga Template:IPA |
| Genitive | bróige Template:IPA | bróg Template:IPA |
| deoir 'a tear' | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative/Vocative/Dative | deoir Template:IPA | deora Template:IPA |
| Genitive | deoire Template:IPA | deor Template:IPA |
In Connacht it is often the case that all nouns of the second declension in the nom. sg. end with a slender consonant (e.g. bróig 'a shoe').
In some Munster varieties as well as the old literary language, the dative singular is distinct and ends in a slender consonant alone (in effect the dative sg. is formed by dropping the -e from the genitive sg.), e.g. i mbróig 'in a shoe'. (Historically, Connacht nominative forms like bróig are descended from the old dative.)
When Template:IPA in the Gen. Sing. is made slender, it is also voiced, so Template:IPA > Template:IPA > Template:IPA. Template:IPA becomes Template:IPA, and is written -(a)í.
| girseach 'little girl' | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative/Vocative/Std. dative | girseach Template:IPA | girseacha Template:IPA |
| Genitive | girsí Template:IPA | girseach Template:IPA |
| (Alt. dative) | girsigh Template:IPA | girseacha Template:IPA |
Polysyllabic words that end with a slender consonant take a weak plural in -í:
| eaglais 'church' | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative/Vocative/Dative | eaglais Template:IPA | eaglaisí Template:IPA |
| Genitive | eaglaise Template:IPA | eaglaisí Template:IPA |
Many words in this declension form a weak plural with one of the endings -t(h)a,-te, -(e)acha or -eanna:
- áit, áite, áiteanna - place
- coill, coille, coillte Template:IPA - forest
- iníon, iníne, iníonacha - daughter
- obair, oibre, oibreacha - work
- spéir, spéire, spéartha - sky
- tír, tíre, tírthe - country
- tonn, toinne, tonnta Template:IPA - wave
- ubh, uibhe, uibheacha - egg
Other weak plural formations are found in:
- fiacail, fiacaile; fiacla - tooth
- gualainn, gualainne; guaillí - shoulder
- scian, scine; sceana - knife (NB irregular genitive singular)
- sliabh, sléibhe; sléibhte (m.) - mountain (note irregular genitive singular and masculine gender)
Third
The third declension is made up of masculine and feminine nouns. It is characterized by the genitive singular in -a. The majority of nouns in this class form the plural in -(a)í. The final consonant of the stem may be broad or slender: it retains its quality in the plural, but is always broad in the genitive singular.
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative/Vocative/Dative | broad or slender cons. | -(a)í |
| Genitive | broad cons. + -a | -(a)í |
| bádóir (m.) 'boatsman' | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative/Vocative/Dative | bádóir Template:IPA | badóirí Template:IPA |
| Genitive | bádóra Template:IPA | badóirí Template:IPA |
| rás (m.) 'race' | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative/Vocative/Dative | rás Template:IPA | rásaí Template:IPA |
| Genitive | rása Template:IPA | rásaí Template:IPA |
Feminine nouns in -áint and -úint lose their t in the Gen. Sg.; those in -irt have -th- instead of -t- in the Gen. Sg.
- bagairt, bagartha, bagairtí (f.) - threat
- canúint, canúna, canúintí (f.) - dialect
Many words in this declension form the plural with one of the endings -anna or -acha:
- am, ama, amanna (m.) Template:IPA - time
- anam, anama, anamacha (m.) - soul
- droim, droma, dromanna (m.) Template:IPA - back
- loch, locha, lochanna (m.) - lake
- troid, troda, troideanna (f.) - fight, struggle
Fourth
The fourth declension is made up of masculine and feminine nouns. It is characterized by a genitive singular that is identical in form to the nominative/vocative/dative singular. The singular may end in a vowel or a consonant (usually the diminutive suffix -ín). The most common plural ending is -(a)í.
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| All cases | Vowel or consonant (usually -ín) | -(a)í |
| balla (m.) 'wall' | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| All cases | balla Template:IPA | ballaí Template:IPA |
| comhairle (f.) '(piece of) advice' | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| All cases | comhairle Template:IPA | comhairlí Template:IPA |
| cailín (m.) 'girl' | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| All cases | cailín Template:IPA | cailíní Template:IPA |
Many words of this declension form the plural with the following endings -tha/-t(h)e, -((e)a)nna or -((e)a)cha:
- ainmhí; ainmhithe (m.) - animal
- aturnae; aturnaetha (m.) - attorney
- baile; bailte (m.) - village
- bus; busanna (m.) - bus
- cliamhain; cliamhaineacha (m.) - son-in-law
- cneá; cneácha (f.) - wound, sore
- cnó; cnónna (m.) - nut
- cró; cróite (m.) - outhouse; eye of a needle
- dlí; dlíthe (m.) - law
- dosaen; dosaenacha (m.) - dozen
- ga; gathanna (m.) - ray, radius
- gé; géanna (f.) - goose
- léine; léine, léinte (f.) - shirt
- rá; ráite (m.) - saying
- rí; ríthe (m.) - king
- sloinne; sloinnte Template:IPA (m.) - last name
- teanga; teangacha (f.) - language, tongue
- tine; tinte (f.) - fire
Other weak plural formations are found in:
- ainm; ainmneacha (m.) - name
- airí; airíona (m.) - characteristic, symptom
- aithne; aitheanta (f.) - commandment
- bruach; bruacha (m.) - bank (of river etc.)
- cine; ciníocha (m.) - race, tribe
- duine; daoine (m.) - person, human being
- gabha; gaibhne (m.) - blacksmith
- gnó; gnóthaí (m.) - business
- oíche; oícheanta (f.) - night
- teanga; teangacha (f.) - tongue, language
One noun in this class has a strong plural:
- bó, bó; ba, bó (f.) - cow
Fifth
The fifth declension is made up mostly of feminine nouns and is characterized by a genitive singular that ends in a broad consonant that has been added to the nominative/vocative/dative singular. The most common plural is weak, formed by adding -a to the genitive singular.
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative/Vocative/Dative | Vowel or slender consonant | Gen. Sg. + -a |
| Genitive | broad consonant | Gen. Sg. + -a |
| pearsa 'person' | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative/Vocative/Dative | pearsa Template:IPA | pearsana Template:IPA |
| Genitive | pearsan Template:IPA | pearsana Template:IPA |
| cathair 'city' | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative/Vocative/Dative | cathair Template:IPA | cathracha Template:IPA |
| Genitive | cathrach Template:IPA | cathracha Template:IPA |
In some Munster varieties as well as the old literary language, the dative singular is distinct and ends in a slender consonant (in effect the dative sg. is formed by palatalizing the genitive sg.), for example, do phearsain 'to a person', ón gcathraigh 'from the city'. In Éire, Éireann 'Ireland' the dative Éirinn is still used in the standard language.
Some words form the genitive singular by changing the final consonant of the nominative singular to broad. The plural is then weak -eacha.
- abhainn, abhann, aibhneacha Template:IPA - river
- athair, athar, aithreacha (m.) - father
- deartháir, dearthár, deartháireacha Template:IPA (m.) - brother
- máthair, máthar, máithreacha - mother
Other weak plural formations are found in:
- bráthair, bráthar; bráithre (m.) - brother (monk), friar
- cara, carad; cairde Template:IPA (m.) - friend
- namhaid, namhad; naimhde (m.) - enemy
- Nollaig, Nollag; Nollaigí - Christmas
Some nouns have strong plurals; here the genitive singular and genitive plural have the same form:
- caora, caorach; caoirigh, caorach - sheep
- lacha, lachan; lachain, lachan - duck
Verbal nouns
The most productive verbal nouns end with -(e)adh (1st conjugation) or -(i)ú (2nd conjugation). These originally belonged to the third declension, but synchronically are best regarded as separate declensions.
The 1st conjugation verbal noun in -(e)adh has a genitive singular in -te/-ta and a plural in -t(a)í.
- briseadh, briste; bristí - breaking
- moladh, molta; moltaí - praising; recommendation
The 2nd conjugation verbal noun in -(i)ú has a genitive singular in -(a)ithe and a plural in -(u)ithe. These endings are pronounced the same regardless of the spelling distinction.
- scrúdú, scrúdaithe; scrúduithe - examining, examination
- síniú, sínithe; sínithe - stretching
Irregular nouns
The following nouns are declined irregularly:
- bean, mná; mná, ban (f.) - woman
- deirfiúr, deirféar; deirfiúracha (f.) Template:IPA - sister
- deoch, dí; deochanna Template:IPA (f.) - drink
- Dia, Dé; déithe (m.) - God
- lá, lae; laethanta (m.) - day
- leaba, leapa; leapacha (f.) - bed
- mí, míosa; míonna (f.) - month
- muir, mara; mara (f.) - sea
- olann, olla (f.) - wool
- talamh, talaimh (m.) or talún (f.); tailte - land
- teach, tí; tithe (m.) - house
Article
The definite article has two forms in Irish: an and na. Their distribution depends on whether the noun is singular or plural, the case of the noun, and the initial sound of the noun.
| Singular preceding a consonant | Masculine | Feminine |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | an cat | an bhróg |
| Genitive | an chait | na bróige |
| Dative (i) | den chat | don bhróg |
| Dative (ii) | ag an gcat | faoin mbróg |
Dative (i) is used with den 'from the', don 'to the', and sa(n) 'in the'. Dative (ii) is used with other prepositions.
| Singular preceding a vowel | Masculine | Feminine |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | an t-éan | an eaglais |
| Genitive | an éin | na heaglaise |
| Dative | san éan, ag an éan | den eaglais, tríd an eaglais |
| Plural | Both genders |
|---|---|
| Nominative/Dative | (do) na cait; (leis) na héin; (ar) na bróga; (s)na heaglaisí |
| Genitive | na gcat; na n-éin; na mbróg; na n-eaglaisí |
There is no indefinite article in Irish, so depending on context cat can mean 'cat' or 'a cat'.
Adjective
Almost all adjectives in Irish can be used either predicatively or attributively. A predicative adjective is one that forms a part of the predicate, like red in the sentence The car is red. An attributive adjective directly modifies a noun, as in the red car.
A predicate adjective in Irish does not inflect:
- Tá an fear sin beag. 'That man is small.'
- Tá na fir sin beag. 'Those men are small.'
- Tá an bhean seo beag. 'This woman is small.'
- Tá na mná seo beag. 'These women are small.'
A predicate adjective expressing a value judgment is often precded by the particle go. This particle attaches an h to a following vowel.
- Tá mé go maith. 'I'm fine' (lit.'I am good.')
- Tá an scéal go holc. 'The story is bad.'
- Bhí an aimsir go hálainn. 'The weather was beautiful.'
An attributive adjective mostly follows the noun and is inflected:
- an fear beag 'the small man'
- an fhir bhig 'of the small man' (gen.)
There are three classes of declension of adjectives in Irish, which correspond to the first four declensions of nouns:
| Nom. sg. ends with: | Gen. sg. masc. ends with: | Gen. sg. fem. ends with: | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st/2nd decl. | slender or broad cons. | slender consonant | slender consonant + -e |
| 3rd decl. | slender cons. (mostly -úil) | slender consonant | broad consonant + -a |
| 4th decl. | vowel | = nom. sg. | = nom. sg. |
First/Second declension
| bocht 'poor' | Masc. sg. | Fem. sg. | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | bocht | bhocht | b(h)ochta |
| Genitive | bhoicht | boichte | bocht(a) |
| bacach 'lame' | Masc. sg. | Fem. sg. | Plural |
| Nominative | bacach | bhacach | b(h)acacha |
| Genitive | bhacaigh | bacaí | bacach(a) |
| ciúin 'quiet' | Masc. sg. | Fem. sg. | Plural |
| Nominative | ciúin | chiúin | c(h)iúine |
| Genitive | chiúin | ciúine | ciúin(e) |
Third declension
| misniúil 'brave' | Masc. sg. | Fem. sg. | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | misniúil | mhisniúil | m(h)isniúla |
| Genitive | mhisniúil | misniúla | misniúil, -úla |
| cóir 'just' | Masc. Sg. | Fem. Sg. | Plural |
| Nominative | cóir | chóir | c(h)óra |
| Genitive | chóir | córa | cóir, córa |
Fourth declension
This declension does not inflect.
| crua 'hard' | Masc. sg. | Fem. sg. | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | crua | chrua | c(h)rua |
| Genitive | chrua | crua | crua |
Irregular adjectives
| Masc. sg. nom. & gen. | Fem. sg. nom. | Fem. sg. gen. | Pl. nom./gen. | Gloss |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| álainn | álainn | áille | áille | 'beautiful' |
| breá | bhreá | breátha | b(h)reátha | 'fine' |
| deacair | dheachair | deacra | d(h)eacra | 'difficult' |
| gearr | ghearr | giorra | g(h)earra | 'short' |
| socair | shocair | socra | s(h)ocra | 'still' |
| tapaidh | thapaidh | thapaí | t(h)apaí | 'fast' |
| te | the | te | t(h)eo | 'hot' |
| tirim | thirim | tirime | t(h)iorma | 'dry' |
Notes
- The nominative plural undergoes lenition only if the noun ends with a slender consonant: cait bhacacha 'lame cats'.
Otherwise, the adjective in the nominative plural does not lenite: táilliúrí bacacha 'lame tailors'.
- The long form of the genitive plural (e.g. bochta, bacacha, ciúine) is used when the noun has a weak plural, e.g.
máithreacha bacacha 'of lame mothers'. The short form (e.g. bocht, bacach, ciúin) is used when the noun has a strong plural, e.g. cat bacach 'of lame cats'.
- The dative has the same form as the nominative.
- The vocative has the same form as the nominative except in the masculine singular of the 1st/2nd declension, where it has the same form as the genitive.
Comparative
Irish adjectives have a comparative form equivalent to the comparative and to the superlative in English. The comparative does not undergo inflexion and is the same as the feminine singular genitive in regular and many irregular adjectives.
Regular formation
| Base form | Comparative form | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| álainn | áille | 'beautiful/more beautiful' |
| bacach | bacaí | 'lame/lamer' |
| bocht | boichte | 'poor/poorer' |
| ciúin | ciúine | 'quiet/quieter' |
| cóir | córa | 'just/more just' |
| crua | crua | 'hard/harder' |
| deacair | deacra | 'difficult/more difficult' |
| gearr | giorra | 'short/shorter' |
| misniúil | misniúla | 'brave/braver' |
| socair | socra | 'still/stiller' |
| tapaidh | tapaí | 'fast/faster' |
| tirim | tirime | 'dry/drier' |
Irregular forms
| Base form | Comparative form | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| beag | lú | 'small/smaller' |
| breá | breátha | 'fine/finer' |
| dócha | dóichí | 'possible/more possible' |
| fada | faide | 'long/longer' |
| fogus | foisce | 'near/nearer' |
| furasta | fusa | 'easy/easier' |
| iomaí | lia | 'many/more' |
| maith | fearr | 'good/better' |
| olc | measa | 'bad/worse' |
| te | teo | 'hot/hotter' |
| tréan | tréine or treise | 'strong/stronger' |
| mór | mó | 'big/bigger' |
Syntax of comparison
There are two constructions to express the comparative:
1) Copula + comparative form + subject + ná ('than') + predicate. The preterite of the copula causes lenition, while the present tense does not.
- Ba thréine Cáit ná Cathal. 'Cáit was stronger than Cathal.'
- Is airde Seán ná mise. 'Seán is bigger than me.'
- B'óige an madra ná an cat. 'The dog was younger than the cat.'
- Is fearr Gaeilge bhrise ná Béarla clise. 'Broken Irish is better than clever English.'
2) níos/níb(a) + comparative + ná + predicate. Níos is used if the sentence is in the present or future tense.
Níb(a), which triggers lenition, is used if the sentence is in the past tense. Níb is used before words starting with vowels and níba before those starting with consonants.
- Tá an ghrian níos gile ná an ghealach. 'The sun is brighter than the moon.'
- Beidh Peadar níos saibhre ná a athair. 'Peadar will be richer than his father.'
- D'éirigh Peadar níba shaibhre ná a athair. 'Peadar became richer than his father.'
- Bhí Seán níb airde ná mise. 'Seán was bigger than me.'
A superlative is expressed as a relative clause: noun + is/ba/ab + comparative form.
- an cailín is tréine 'the strongest girl' (lit. 'the girl who is the strongest')
- an cailín ba thréine 'the strongest girl' (lit. 'the girl who was the strongest')
- an buachaill is óige 'the youngest boy' (lit.'the boy who is the youngest')
- an buachaill ab óige 'the youngest boy' (lit.'the boy who was the youngest')