Latin declension
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Latin is an inflected language, and as such its nouns, pronouns, and adjectives must be declined in order to serve a grammatical function. A set of declined forms of the same word pattern is called a declension. There are five declensions, which are numbered and grouped by ending and grammatical gender.
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Grammatical cases
A complete declenation consists of seven grammatical cases:
- The nominative case, which is used to express the subject of a statement. It is also used with copulative verbs.
- The vocative case, which is used to address someone or something in direct speech. This case is indicated in English by punctuation, e.g. "Mary is going to the store" (Mary is nominative) compared to "Mary, are you going to the store?" (Mary is vocative) or "Mary!"
- The genitive case, which expresses possession, measurement, or source. In English, the gentive case is represented analytically by the preposition of; inflectively, by the suffix "-es" (or -se, when the stem ends in a vowel - e.g., who > whose, not "whoes"). This suffix, which is the same as the Latin suffix "-is," is typically abbreviated "-'s" (e.g., Paul > Paul's, not "Paules").
- The dative case, which expresses the recipient of an action, the indirect object of a verb. In English, the prepositions to, from and for most commonly denote this case analytically.
- The accusative case, which expresses the direct object of a verb. In English, except for a small number of words which display a distinct accusative case (e.g., who > whom), the accusative and nominative cases are identical.
- The ablative case, which expresses separation, indirection, or the means by which an action is performed. In English, the prepositions by, with, and from are most commonly used to indicate this case.
- The locative case, which is used to express the place in or on which, or the time at which, an action is performed. The locative case is extremely marginal in Latin, applying only to the names of cities and small islands and to a few other isolated words, and is identical to the genitive case (in the singular of the first and second declension) and the ablative case otherwise.
The sequence of the grammatical cases above is standard in North America, and in fact goes back to Byzantine grammarians originally writing about Greek. But the presentation NOM-VOC-ACC-GEN-DAT-ABL has been the usual order in Britain and many European and Commonwealth countries since the publication of Hall Kennedy's Latin Primer (1866). This order is argued to more closely reflect the tendencies of different cases to share similar endings.
In Polish language Latin learner texts, however, the most common order is NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC-ABL-VOC, which is a similar order to the one adopted for Modern Polish. Likewise, in German textbooks, the order NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC-VOC-ABL is used, to mirror the order of the four grammatical cases of Modern German (NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC). The same order is used in Italian textbooks (Italian has no grammatical cases).
Syncretic trends
Syncretism, where one form in a paradigm shares the ending of another form in the paradigm, is common in Latin. The following are the most notable patterns of syncretism:
- The accusative is always identical to the nominative in the neuter (both singular and plural, across all declensions). In addition, the accusative is the same as the nominative in the plural of the third, fourth and fifth declensions (but note the alternative –īs accusative plural ending for i-stem nominals, different from nominative –ēs).
- The vocative is always identical to the nominative in the plural, and also in the singular except in the second declension and a few Greek nouns. For example, the vocative of Aeneās is Aenea, although Aeneās is first declension.
- The dative is always the same as the ablative in the plural, and in the singular in the second declension, the third-declension full i-stems i.e. neuter i-stems, adjectives), and fourth-declension neuters.
- The genitive singular is the same as the nominative plural in first-, second-declension, and fourth declension nouns that are not neuter.
- The dative singular is the same as the genitive singular in first- and fifth-declension nouns.
- Plural neuter nominative/accusative always ends in -a (with a few exceptions: demonstrative hic and related istic and illic, relative/interrogative quī and friends; in all of them, the neuter plural takes the same form as feminine singular nominative).
- The accusative singular ends in short vowel plus -m, except for a few neuters with unusual base forms.
- The accusative plural (assuming not neuter) ends in a long vowel plus -s; so does the nominative plural of the third, fourth and fifth declensions (again assuming not neuter).
Noun declensions
There are five declensions of nouns in Latin.
First declension (a)
Nouns of this declension usually end in –a and are typically feminine. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is a.
Note that Latin does not have articles and as such there is no grammatical distinction between a girl and the girl; the same word, puella, represents both.
| Case | Ending | Declined Form | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | |||
| Nominative | –a | puella | (a, the) girl |
| Vocative | –a | Puella! | Girl! |
| Genitive | –ae | puellae | of (a, the) girl |
| Dative | –ae | puellae | to, for (a, the) girl |
| Accusative | –am | puellam | (a, the) girl |
| Ablative | –ā | puellā | by, with, from (a, the) girl |
| Plural | |||
| Nominative | –ae | puellae | (the) girls |
| Vocative | –ae | Puellæ! | Girls! |
| Genitive | –ārum | puellārum | of (the) girls |
| Dative | –īs | puellīs | to, for (the) girls |
| Accusative | –ās | puellās | (the) girls |
| Ablative | –īs | puellīs | by, with, from (the) girls |
Second declension (o)
Nouns of this declension usually end in –us, –um, or –r and are typically masculine or neuter. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is o.
| Case | Ending | Declined Form | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | |||
| Nominative | –us | servus | (a, the) slave |
| Vocative | –e | serve! | Slave! |
| Genitive | –ī | servī | of (a, the) slave |
| Dative | –ō | servō | to, for (a, the) slave |
| Accusative | –um | servum | (a, the) slave |
| Ablative | –ō | servō | by, with, from (a, the) slave |
| Plural | |||
| Nominative | –ī | servī | (the) slaves |
| Vocative | –ī | servī! | slaves! |
| Genitive | –ōrum | servōrum | of (the) slaves |
| Dative | –īs | servīs | to, for (the) slaves |
| Accusative | –ōs | servōs | (the) slaves |
| Ablative | –īs | servīs | by, with, from (the) slaves |
| Case | Ending | Declined Form | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | |||
| Nominative | –um | scortum | (a, the) whore |
| Vocative | –um | scortum! | whore! |
| Genitive | –ī | scortī | of (a, the) whore |
| Dative | –ō | scortō | to, for (a, the) whore |
| Accusative | –um | scortum | (a, the) whore |
| Ablative | –ō | scortō | by, with, from (a, the) whore |
| Plural | |||
| Nominative | –a | scorta | (the) whores |
| Vocative | –a | scorta! | whores! |
| Genitive | –ōrum | scortōrum | of (the) whores |
| Dative | –īs | scortīs | to, for (the) whores |
| Accusative | –a | scorta | (the) whores |
| Ablative | –īs | scortīs | by, with, from (the) whores |
| Case | Ending | Declined Form | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | |||
| Nominative | – | ager[1] | (a, the) field |
| Vocative | – | Ager! | (The) Field! |
| Genitive | –ī | agrī | of (a, the) field |
| Dative | –ō | agrō | to, for (a, the) field |
| Accusative | –um | agrum | (a, the) field |
| Ablative | –ō | agrō | by, with, for (a, the) field |
| Plural | |||
| Nominative | –ī | agrī | (the) fields |
| Vocative | –ī | Agrī! | (The) Fields! |
| Genitive | –ōrum | agrōrum | of (the) fields |
| Dative | –īs | agrīs | to, for (the) fields |
| Accusative | –ōs | agrōs | (the) fields |
| Ablative | –īs | agrīs | by, with, from (the) fields |
[1]—Note that the e in the nominative singular form was inserted to ease pronunciation and is omitted in the other cases. There are some words for which the e is part of the stem proper; for these words, the letter cannot be omitted. These include gener (m.), son-in-law; socer (m), father-in-law; puer (m.), boy; vesper (m.), evening; and līberī (m. pl.), children.
Third declension (mixed)
Nouns of this declension end in a consonant; there are feminine, masculine, and neuter nouns.
| Case | Ending | Declined Form | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | |||
| Nominative | –[1] | rēx | (a, the) king |
| Vocative | –[1] | Rēx! | (The) King! |
| Genitive | –is | rēgis | of (a, the) king |
| Dative | –ī | rēgī | to, for (a, the) king |
| Accusative | –em | rēgem | (a, the) king |
| Ablative | –e | rēge | by, with, from (a, the) king |
| Plural | |||
| Nominative | –ēs | rēgēs | (the) kings |
| Vocative | –ēs | Rēgēs! | (The) Kings! |
| Genitive | –um | rēgum | of (the) kings |
| Dative | –ibus | rēgibus | to, for (the) kings |
| Accusative | –ēs | rēgēs | (the) kings |
| Ablative | –ibus | rēgibus | by, with, from (the) kings |
[1]The ending for the nominative and vocative singular is actually 's', but its interaction with various stems, accompanied by various phonologial rules, may delete or change either the final sound(s) of the stem or the 's' ending, as in this and the following declension. For example, the stem for 'king' is /reg-/, and adding /s/ makes the /g/ devoice to /k/.
| Case | Ending | Declined Form | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | |||
| Nominative | – | nōmen | (a, the) name |
| Vocative | – | Nōmen! | (The) Name! |
| Genitive | –is | nōminis | of (a, the) name |
| Dative | –ī | nōminī | to, for (a, the) name |
| Accusative | – | nōmen | (a, the) name |
| Ablative | –e | nōmine | by, with, from (a, the) name |
| Plural | |||
| Nominative | –a | nōmina | (the) names |
| Vocative | –a | Nōmina! | (The) Names! |
| Genitive | –um | nōminum | of (the) names |
| Dative | –ibus | nōminibus | to, for (the) names |
| Accusative | –a | nōmina | (the) names |
| Ablative | –ibus | nōminibus | by, with, from (the) names |
| Case | Ending | Declined Form | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | |||
| Nominative | –is | hostis | (an, the) enemy |
| Vocative | –is | Hostis! | (The) Enemy! |
| Genitive | –is | hostis | of (an, the) enemy |
| Dative | –ī | hostī | to, for (an, the) enemy |
| Accusative | –em[1] | hostem | (an, the) enemy |
| Ablative | –e[2] | hoste | by, with, from (an, the) enemy |
| Plural | |||
| Nominative | –ēs | hostēs | (the) enemies |
| Vocative | –ēs | Hostēs! | (The) Enemies! |
| Genitive | –ium | hostium | of (the) enemies |
| Dative | –ibus | hostibus | to, for (the) enemies |
| Accusative | –ēs[3] | hostēs | (the) enemies |
| Ablative | –ibus | hostibus | by, with, from (the) enemies |
The following alternate endings are also possible:
- Accusative singular, –im, declined hostim
- Ablative singular, –ī, declined hostī
- Accusative plural, –īs, declined hostīs
Fourth declension (u)
Nouns of this declension end in (nominative ending) –us, which are usually masculine, or –ū, which are always neuter. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is u.
| Case | Ending | Declined Form | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | |||
| Nominative | –us | lacus | (a, the) lake |
| Vocative | –us | Lacus! | (The) Lake! |
| Genitive | –ūs | lacūs | of (a, the) lake |
| Dative | –uī | lacuī | to, for (a, the) lake |
| Accusative | –um | lacum | (a, the) lake |
| Ablative | –ū | lacū | by, with, from (a, the) lake |
| Plural | |||
| Nominative | –ūs | lacūs | (the) lakes |
| Vocative | –ūs | Lacūs! | (The) Lakes! |
| Genitive | –uum | lacuum | of (the) lakes |
| Dative | –ibus | lacibus | to, for (the) lakes |
| Accusative | –ūs | lacūs | (the) lakes |
| Ablative | –ibus | lacibus | by, with, from (the) lakes |
| Case | Ending | Declined Form | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | |||
| Nominative | –ū | cornū | (a, the) horn |
| Vocative | –ū | Cornū! | (The) Horn! |
| Genitive | –ūs | cornūs | of (a, the) horn |
| Dative | –ū | cornū | to, for (a, the) horn |
| Accusative | –ū | cornū | (a, the) horn |
| Ablative | –ū | cornū | by, with, from (a, the) horn |
| Plural | |||
| Nominative | –ua | cornua | (the) horns |
| Vocative | –ua | Cornua! | (The) Horns! |
| Genitive | –uum | cornuum | of (the) horns |
| Dative | –ibus | cornibus | to, for (the) horns |
| Accusative | –ua | cornua | (the) horns |
| Ablative | –ibus | cornibus | by, with, from (the) horns |
Fifth declension (e)
Nouns of this declension end in –ēs and are almost always feminine.
Example I (paradigma rēs - thing)
| Latin Noun Case: Fifth Declension Feminine | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | ||||
| Case | Suffix | English prep. | Sample | Translation |
| Nominative | ēs | - | rēs | the thing |
| Vocative | ēs | - | rēs! | thing! |
| Genitive | eī | -of | reī | of the thing |
| Dative | eī | -to, -for | reī | to the thing |
| Accusative | em | - | rem | the thing |
| Ablative | ē | -with, -by | rē | with the thing |
| Plural | ||||
| Case | Suffix | English prep. | Sample | Translation |
| Nominative | ēs | - | rēs | the things |
| Vocative | ēs | - | rēs | things! | Genitive | ērum | -of | rērum | of the things |
| Dative | ēbus | -to, -for | rēbus | to the things |
| Accusative | ēs | - | rēs | the things |
| Ablative | ēbus | -with, -by | rēbus | with the things |
Example II (paradigma diēs - day )
| Latin Noun Case: Fifth Declension Masculine | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | ||||
| Case | Suffix | English prep. | Sample | Translation |
| Nominative | ēs | - | diēs | the day |
| Vocative | ēs | - | diēs! | day! |
| Genitive | ēī | -of | diēī | of the day |
| Dative | ēī | -to, -for | diēī | to the day |
| Accusative | em | - | diem | the day |
| Ablative | ē | -with, -by | diē | with the day |
| Plural | ||||
| Case | Suffix | English prep. | Sample | Translation |
| Nominative | ēs | - | diēs | the days |
| Vocative | ēs | - | diēs | days! | Genitive | ērum | -of | diērum | of the days |
| Dative | ēbus | -to, -for | diēbus | to the days |
| Accusative | ēs | - | diēs | the days |
| Ablative | ēbus | -with, -by | diēbus | with the days |
Note that nouns ending in iēs have long ēī in the dative and genitive, while nouns ending in a consonant + ēs have short eī in these cases.
This declension class is the last to develop in Latin; the only nouns that have the full declension are diēs and fidēs.
From rēs we get rēs pūblica, or republic: thing of the people.
Adjective declensions
Adjectives are divided into two declension classes. The first (called the "first and second declension") combines the a and o declensions of nouns, with the a endings added when the adjective is feminine, and the o forms for masculines. Neuter adjectives of this class follow the pattern for o class neuter nouns.
The other class for adjectives (called the "third declension") is similar to the third class for nouns, with the important difference that nearly all these adjectives form the ablative singular in -ī, not in -e. The nominative singular of these adjectives is also often marked for gender in various ways.
A small class of adjectives follows the "pronominal declension", described below.
Pronoun declensions
Relative and demonstrative pronouns are generally declined like first and second declension adjectives, with the following differences:
- the nominatives are often irregular
- the dative singular ends in -ī: rather than -ae or -ō.
- the genitive singular ends in -īus rather than -ae or -ī.
These differences identify the "pronominal" declension, and a few adjectives also follow this pattern.
Demonstrative Pronouns
| Demonstrative Pronoun: is/ea/id | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | ||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | is | ea | id | eī | eae | ea |
| Genitive | eius | eius | eius | eōrum | eārum | eōrum |
| Dative | eī | eī | eī | eīs | eīs | eīs |
| Accusative | eum | eam | id | eōs | eās | ea |
| Ablative | eō | eā | eō | eīs | eīs | eīs |
| Demonstrative Pronoun: ille/illa/illud | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | ||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | ille | illa | illud | illī | illae | illa |
| Genitive | illīus | illīus | illīus | illōrum | illārum | illōrum |
| Dative | illī | illī | illī | illīs | illīs | illīs |
| Accusative | illum | illam | illud | illōs | illās | illa |
| Ablative | illō | illā | illō | illīs | illīs | illīs |
| Demonstrative Pronoun: hic/haec/hoc | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | ||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | hic | haec | hoc | hī | hae | haec |
| Genitive | huius | huius | huius | hōrum | hārum | hōrum |
| Dative | huic | huic | huic | hīs | hīs | hīs |
| Accusative | hunc | hanc | hoc | hōs | hās | haec |
| Ablative | hōc | hāc | hōc | hīs | hīs | hīs |
| Relative Pronoun: qui/quae/quod | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | ||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | quī | quae | quod | quī | quae | quae |
| Genitive | cuius | cuius | cuius | quōrum | quārum | quōrum |
| Dative | cui | cui | cui | quibus | quibus | quibus |
| Accusative | quem | quam | quod | quōs | quās | quae |
| Ablative | quō | quā | quō | quibus | quibus | quibus |
Personal Pronouns
| 1st Personal Pronoun Declension | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | |||
| Case | English prep. | Sample | Translation |
| Nominative | - | ego | I |
| Genitive | -of | meī | my |
| Dative | -to, -for | mihi | to me |
| Accusative | - | mē | me |
| Ablative | -with, -by | mē | with me |
| Plural | |||
| Case | English prep. | Sample | Translation |
| Nominative | - | nōs | we |
| Genitive | -of | nostrī/um | our |
| Dative | -to, -for | nōbīs | to us |
| Accusative | - | nōs | us |
| Ablative | -with, -by | nōbīs | with us |
| 2nd Personal Pronoun Declension | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | |||
| Case | English prep. | Sample | Translation |
| Nominative | - | tū | you |
| Genitive | -of | tuī | your |
| Dative | -to, -for | tibi | to you |
| Accusative | - | tē | you |
| Ablative | -with, -by | tē | with you |
| Plural | |||
| Case | English prep. | Sample | Translation |
| Nominative | - | vōs | you |
| Genitive | -of | vestrī/um | your |
| Dative | -to, -for | vōbīs | to you |
| Accusative | - | vōs | you |
| Ablative | -with, -by | vōbīs | with you |