Masculinity
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Masculinity comprises culturally of the traits assigned to the male in various contexts. The word masculine can refer to:
- The property of being biologically male, more precisely expressed in biology as "sex"
- A traditional gender role associated with sexually male humans
- Grammatical gender, an inflection of nouns, largely derived from gender role association
Masculinity is sometimes used as a synonym for manhood. The counterpart or positive antonym of masculinity is femininity. The negative antonym is effeminacy.
Masculinity is a gender role associated with male humans and an indicator of social status much as wealth, race or social class. Greater masculinity usually brings greater social status for males, and many English words such as virtue (from the Latin vir for "man'", also used in words such as vim and vigor and virulent) reflect this, implying a clear association with strength. Masculinity is associated more commonly with adult men rather than younger boys as a key characteristic of social persona. The corresponding gender role for females is called femininity. To assert the presence of femininity or masculinity in a member of the opposite gender is to mark them as unusual, often in an undesirable way. In non-human primates, the corresponding trait is called dominance in both sexes, expressed as relative position within a gender group, where human terms such as "masculinity" almost never used in general ethology.
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Sociology
Since Emile Durkheim, masculinity has been an interest of sociologists. Janet Saltzman Chafetz (1974, 35-36) describes seven areas of traditional masculinity:
- Physical--virile, athletic, strong, brave. Unconcerned about appearance and aging;
- Functional--breadwinner, provider;
- Sexual--sexually aggressive, experienced. Single status acceptable;
- Emotional--unemotional, stoic;
- Intellectual--logical, intellectual, rational, objective, practical,
- Interpersonal--leader, dominating; disciplinarian; independent, individualistic (applies to western societies);
- Other Personal Characteristics--success-oriented, ambitious; proud, egotistical, moral, trustworthy; decisive, competitive, uninhibited, adventurous.
- (Levine, 1998, p.13)
Stereotypic notions of masculinity, such as all of the above, are socially constructed and thus differ across time periods and cultures.
Development of masculinity
Template:Main articles Image:Marines wrestle.jpg There is an extensive debate about how children develop gender identities. See Gender identity and Gender role for a full discussion of the subject. In many cultures, however, non-standard characteristics of the "other" gender may become a social problem. Among sexually mature individuals, non-standard behaviors may be considered a sign of homosexuality, and a male who exhibits femininity or insufficient masculinity may be called a "sissy", "pussy", "queer", "bitch", or "faggot", among other things, while a young female who exhibits masculine behavior is sometimes called a "tom boy", to encourage conformity. Within sociology such labeling and conditioning is known as peer pressure, and is a part of socialization to better match a culture's mores. The corresponding social condemnation of excessive masculinity may be expressed in by terms such as "machismo" or as "testosterone poisoning."
The historical development of gender role is addressed by such fields as evolutionary psychology, human ecology and sociobiology. All human cultures seem to encourage the development of gender roles, through literature, costume and song. Some examples of this might include the epics of Homer, the King Arthur tales in English, the normative commentaries of Confucius or biographical studies of Muhammad. More specialized treatments of masculinity may be found in works such as the Bhagavad Gita or bushido's Hagakure.
Men's health risks
Many assert that social pressures to be masculine frequently have a negative affect on men's health, as represented by higher accident rates, death in war, participation in violence and less attention to medical care.
Mortality rates for all of the 15 leading causes of death for the total population are higher for males than females in America. Men die almost seven years earlier than women. Men are more likely to suffer from chronic illnesses, to suffer a traumatic brain injury, and to die from acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Men are less likely to exercise and are more likely to be overweight. They are also less likely to take nutritional supplements, such as vitamins, and to spend time taking care of themselves.
Some argue that this is in part because men are “allowed” to be overweight. The American media may present a man who is obese as still being very masculine and even attractive (John Belushi, etc). The behaviors and greater awareness of healthy behaviors women exhibit are due in part to the societal value of their appearance and their body. If a woman is overweight, she is considered to be less feminine. Women place greater emphasis on taking care of their bodies which leads them to exhibit healthier behaviors, although some engage in very unhealthy behaviors like bulimia or anorexia. It should be noted that all countries adopt different standards for beauty based on physicality. Often times a more rubenesque woman will be seen as more desirable for the purpose of bearing children.
Masculine gender role stress
Some men feel stressed by societal pressure to act masculine. These men feel that they have to prevail in situations that require physical strength and fitness. To appear weak, emotional, or sexually inefficient is a major threat to their self-esteem. To be content, these men must feel that they are decisive and self-assured, and rational. Masculine gender role stress may develop if a man feels that he has acted unmanly.
In 1987, Eisler and Skidmore did studies on masculinity stress level. They found five mechanisms of masculinity that accompany masculine gender role stress. They include:
a) the emphasis on prevailing in situations requiring fitness and strength
b) contact with women who have a perception of superiority, either in athletics or economic earnings
c) being perceived as emotional and thereby feminine
d) the need to feel conquering in regard to sexual matters and work
e) the need to repress tender emotions such as showing emotions restricted according to traditional masculine customs
Coping strategies
Men and women have different ways that they appraise stressful situations and cope with them. Standards of masculinity cannot only create stress in themselves for some men; they can also limit these men's abilities to relieve stress. Some men appraise situations using the schema of what is an acceptable masculine response rather than what is objectively the best response. Men are limited to a certain range of “approved” responses and coping strategies. Because of this limiting schema, men may not cope with stress as effectively as women cope with stress. Women tend to break down, let their emotions out, and discuss their stress with a friend. Afterwards, they feel better. Men have limited options for coping with stress. This can result in internalizing the stress and not dealing with it which only leads to the stress building up inside.
Stoicism and emotional repression
Society has different rules with regards to the way that men and women are supposed to express themselves. Men are generally regarded as the ones who are supposed to give comfort and strength. If they break down, cry, or seek comfort they may lose face. Women and other men do not give men an option to express feeling sad, tired, weak, depressed, inadequate, needy, or lonely without sacrificing their masculinity.
Men are also four times more likely to commit suicide than women. Often, the family and friends have no idea that something was wrong. Rather than seeking the help of a professional or even talking to their friends, men often try to deal with depression on their own, many times resulting in death.
Risk-taking
Men, significantly more so than women, tend to drink and drive, to not wear seatbelts, to be aggressive, to fight, to drive fast, and to drive dangerously. Men are also more likely to be involved in a homicide, to be involved in a motor vehicle accident and other accidents (It should be noted, however, that any statistics involving males and autos can be misleading, as more men drive than womenTemplate:Fact; more men have jobs requiring them to drive than womenTemplate:Fact; and that even in households where both a man and woman drive, when together the driving is usually performed by the maleTemplate:Fact).
Men are in fact three times more likely to die of accidents than females. Men make up 93% of workplace deaths. While many argue that this is because dangerous job industries are dominated by men, others argue that at least part of the gender disparity is due to masculine risk-taking behavior.
Men generally take more risks with their health than women. All these behaviors are acceptable for men and are to some extent deemed masculine. Men are twice as likely to die from cancer than women are. Men are more likely to smoke, not wear sunscreen, eat unhealthily, and not exercise.
The reasons for this willingness to take risks are widely debated. Some argue that the behavior is mostly or completely caused by social expectations and acceptance of risky behavior in males. Others believe that men, especially young men, are genetically predisposed to be less risk-averse than women because, in terms of a group's reproductive capacity, the loss of a young man is much less damaging than the loss of a young woman, which would seem to present evolutionary pressures towards men being more predisposed to risk and danger (see handicap principle). Some also cite how widespread and culture-independent certain aspects of masculine identity are, implying that if masculinity was purely learned, different societies in different times would have completely different ideas about the masculine gender role, which has historically remained relatively consistent.
Independence and invulnerability
Men are significantly less likely to visit their physicians to receive preventive health care examinations. Men make 134.5 million fewer physician visits than American women each year. In fact, men make only 40.8% of all physician visits. A quarter of the men who are 45 to 60 do not have a personal physician. Men should go to annual heart checkups with physicians but many do not, increasing their risk of death from heart disease. In fact, men between the ages of 25 and 65 are four times more likely to die from cardiovascular disease than women. Men are more likely to be diagnosed in a later stage of a terminal illness because of their reluctance to go to the doctor. This may also be due to the fact that men tend to not notice symptoms as quickly as women do. Jerry Kaiser, a healthcare consultant believes that, "Men… [are] still basically hunters and warriors… They tend to not pay attention to things that are invisible and internal. If there is no clear external stimulus, there's no response."
Reasons men give for not having annual physicals and not visiting their physician include fear, denial, embarrassment, and a dislike of situations out of their control. These are feelings that result from their ideas of masculinity, specifically independence, control, and invulnerability.
Media encouragement
According to Arran Stibbe (2004), men's health problems and behaviors can be linked to the socialized gender role of men in our culture. In exploring magazines, he found that they promote traditional masculinity. Men's magazines tend to celebrate “male” activities and behavior such as admiring guns, fast cars, sexually libertine women, and reading or viewing pornography regularly. In men's magazines several “ideal” images of men are promoted, all of which entail significant health risks. The body-builder image that is promoted typically has poor exercise regimens that fail to equally train all muscle groups or to include cardiovascular activity. The “steak and potato” image is linked to high cholesterol. The excessive beer-drinker image can lead to alcoholism and drunk driving. The fast-food, pizza and McDonalds lover image promotes obesity. The sexual champion image puts men at a higher risk for STDs.
Alcohol consumption behavior
Research on beer commercials by Strate (Postman, Nystrom, Strate, And Weingartner 1987; Strate 1989, 1990) and by Wenner (1991) show some results relevant to studies of masculinity. In beer commercials, the ideas of masculinity (especially risk-taking) are presented and encouraged. The commercials often focus on situations where a man is overcoming an obstacle in a group. The men will either be working hard or playing hard. For instance the commercial will show men who do physical labor such as construction workers, or farm work, or men who are cowboys. Beer is shown as a reward for a job well done. Beer is also associated with the end of the day as a transition from work to leisure. Beer commercials that involve playing hard have a central theme of mastery (over nature or over each other), risk, and adventure. For instance, the men will be outdoors fishing, camping, playing sports, or hanging out in bars. There is usually an element of danger as well as a focus on movement and speed. This appeals to and emphasizes the idea that real men overcome danger and enjoy speed (i.e. fast cars/driving fast). The bar serves as a setting for test of masculinity (skills like pool, strength and drinking ability) and serves as a center for male socializing. Beer is also associated with nature. The idea that beer is natural and pure, not harmful, perhaps even healthy is strongly suggested.
Another example of the depiction of alcohol consumption and bars as central to male socialization can be found in the cartoon The Simpsons. Homer Simpson, the patriarch of the family, is often referred to as an alcoholic and spends a great deal of time at Moe's Tavern. In many episodes, Homer Simpson is portrayed as choosing to spend time at the bar drinking "Duff beer" over spending time with his wife and children.
Perhaps because of this media portrayal and “strong man” attitude, men consume more alcohol than females. Men drink three times as much alcohol as women, often engaging in risky behavior such as binge drinking. According to a study done by Rorabaugh, college men are among the heaviest drinkers in American society. It is conceptualized that college men are seeking adventure. From early in their college experience, men are immersed in drinking. According to Green, drinking games are “an important factor in the socialization of new students into heavy use". Drinking is seen as an adventure in itself as well as for the fact that it frees men to experience sex, violence, and other adventurous behaviors. In exchange for taking the risk presented, college men receive acceptance from their peers. Not only is alcohol in itself a risk in these men’s lives, but some college rituals and traditions expect men to mix danger while they have consumed alcohol. In American colleges, young men view their manhood as developing in a moment that is socially dominated by alcohol.
Masculine roles
The following characters and roles are commonly considered in academic papers as popular embodiments of masculinity.[1][2]
Further reading
Present situation
- Arrindell, Willem A., Ph.D. (1 October 2005) “Masculine Gender Role Stress” Psychiatric Times Pg. 31
- Burstin, Fay “What’s Killing Men”. Herald Sun (Melbourne, Australia). October 15 2005.
- Canada, Geoffrey “Learning to Fight” Men’s Lives Kimmel, Michael S. and Messner, Michael A. ed. Allyn and Bacon. Boston, London: 2001
- Robert Connell: Masculinities, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995 ISBN 0745614698
- Courtenay, Will “Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men's well-being: a theory of gender and health” Social Science and Medicine, yr: 2000 vol: 50 iss: 10 pg: 1385-1401
- Kaufman, Michael “The Construction of Masculinity and the Triad of Men’s Violence”. Men’s Lives Kimmel, Michael S. and Messner, Michael A. ed. Allyn and Bacon. Boston, London: 2001
- Robinson, L. (October 21 2005). Not just boys being boys: Brutal hazings are a product of a culture of masculinity defined by violence, aggression and domination. Ottawa Citizen (Ottawa, Ontario).
- Stephenson, June (1995). Men are Not Cost Effective: Male Crime in America. ISBN 0060950986
- Williamson P. “Their own worst enemy” Nursing Times: 91 (48) 29 November 95 p 24-7
- Wray Herbert “Survival Skills” U.S. News & World Report Vol. 139 , No. 11; Pg. 63 September 26 2005
History
- Michael Kimmel, Manhood in America, New York [etc.]: The Free Press 1996
- A Question of Manhood: A Reader in U.S. Black Mens History and Masculinity, edited by Earnestine Jenkins and Darlene Clark Hine, Indiana University press vol1: 1999, vol. 2: 2001
- Gary Taylor, Castration: An Abbreviated History of Western Manhood, Routledge 2002
- Klaus Theweleit, Male fantasies, Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press, 1987 and Polity Press, 1987
References
- Levine, Martin P. (1998). Gay Macho. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0814746942.
- Stibbe, Arran. (2004). “Health and the Social Construction of Masculinity in Men’s Health Magazine.” Men and Masculinities; 7 (1) July, pp. 31-51.
- Strate, Lance “Beer Commercials: A Manual on Masculinity” Men’s Lives Kimmel, Michael S. and Messner, Michael A. ed. Allyn and Bacon. Boston, London: 2001
External links
- MensHealth.com, a magazine on issues of interest to men. Covers fitness, sex, health, guy wisdom, weight loss, nutrition, and style. In the health section you can find information on illnesses and how to fight them, in addition to information about cholesterol, back pain, heart disease, and stress management.
- MensHealth.org, dedicated to promoting the health and wellness of men and boys. Their goal is to reduce preventable risks and help men and boys live longer and healthier lives. It has a health assessment program and offers services to help men and their families improve their health.
- MenWeb.org articles on health issues, provides articles on health issues and studies that provide statistics and facts. Information on self-help through diet and lifestyle changes as well as information on mental health is highlighted.
- NIMH web pages on men and depression, talks about men and their depression and how to get help.
- Physical Features: Age & Sex This website discusses the physical differences between men and women in terms of how the body naturally masculinizes and feminizes human faces.
- xyonline Online Magazine on issues of masculinity