Nero

Nero Claudius Cæsar Augustus Germanicus (December 15, 37–June 9, 68), born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and last Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty (54–68). Nero became heir to the then Emperor, his grand-uncle and adoptive father Claudius. As Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus he succeeded to the throne on October 13, 54 following Claudius' death. In 66, he added the prefix Imperator to his name. In 68, Nero was deposed. His subsequent death was reportedly the result of suicide assisted by his scribe Epaphroditos.

He has been widely and proverbially believed to have been insane, and though there is no shortage of evidence that seems to back up this claim, it has been scrutinized by revisionists: see the section Nero - mad or misunderstood? below.

Life

Template:Julio-Claudian dynasty

Overview

The documented life of Nero is augmented with legend, with the common theme of his insanity. It is probable that Nero's reputation was also darkened with posthumous slander.

Nero ruled from 54 to 68. During his rule, he focused much of his attention on diplomacy and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games. He also banned the killing of gladiators.

His reign had a number of successes including the war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire (58-63), the putting down of the British revolt (60-61), the putting down of a revolt in Gaul (68) and improving diplomatic ties with Greece.

His failures included the Roman fire of 64, the Spanish revolt of 68 that led to his suicide and the civil war brought about from his death.

Family

Born in Antium, near Rome, on December 15, 37, he was the only son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the younger, sister and reputed lover of Caligula.

His father was grandson to an elder Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Aemilia Lepida through their son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. He was also great-grandson to Mark Antony and Octavia Minor through their daughter Antonia Major. Also, through Octavia, he was the great-nephew of Caesar Augustus.

His mother was the namesake of her own mother Agrippina the elder who was granddaughter to Octavia's brother Caesar Augustus and his wife Scribonia through their daughter Julia the Elder and her husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. His maternal grandfather Germanicus was himself grandson to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia, adoptive grandson to her second husband Caesar Augustus, nephew and adoptive son of Tiberius, son of Drusus through his wife Antonia Minor (sister to Antonia Major), and brother to Claudius.

Rise to power

Birth under Caligula

When born, he was not expected ever to become Augustus. His maternal uncle Caligula had only started his own reign on March 16 of that year at the age of twenty-four. His predecessors Octavian and Tiberius had lived to become seventy-six and seventy-nine respectively. Presumably Caligula would produce his own heirs.

Lucius would come to the attention of his uncle soon after his birth. Agrippina reportedly asked her brother to name the child. This would be an act of favor and would mark the child as a possible heir to his uncle. However, Caligula only offered to name his nephew Claudius, after their lame and stuttering uncle, apparently implying that he was as unlikely to become Augustus as Claudius.

The relationship between brother and sister would soon apparently improve. A prominent scandal early in the new reign was Caligula's particularly close relationship to his three sisters Drusilla, Julia Livilla, and Agrippina. All three are featured with their brother in Roman currency of the time. The three women seem to have gained his favor and likely some amount of influence. The writings of Josephus, Suetonius, and Dio Cassius report on their reputed sexual relationship with their brother. Drusilla's sudden death in 38 would apparently only serve to ensure this belief: she was reportedly Caligula's favorite and was consequently buried with the honors of an Augusta. Caligula proceeded in having her deified, the first woman in Roman history to achieve this honor.

Lucius had then become the son of an influential and notorious woman, who would soon lose her position by her brother. Caligula had remained childless. His closest male relatives at the time were his brothers-in-law Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (husband of Drusilla), Marcus Vinicius (husband of Livilla), and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (husband of Agrippina). They were the likely heirs should Caligula die early. However, after the death of his wife, Lepidus apparently lost his chances, though not his ambitions, to succeed his brother-in-law.

Conspiracies

In September 39 Caligula left Rome with his escort, heading north to join his legions in a campaign against the Germanic tribes. The campaign had to be postponed for the following year due to Caligula's preoccupation with a conspiracy against him. Reportedly Lepidus had managed to become lover to both Agrippina and Livilla, apparently seeking their help in gaining the throne. Consequently, he was immediately executed. Caligula also ordered the execution of Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, the popular Legate of Germania Superior, and his replacement with Servius Sulpicius Galba. However, it remains uncertain whether he was connected to Lepidus' conspiracy. Agrippina and Livilla were soon exiled to the Pontian islands. Lucius was presumably separated from his mother at this point.

Lucius' father died of edema in 40. Lucius was now effectively an orphan with an uncertain fate under the increasingly erratic Caligula. His luck would change again the following year. On January 24, 41 Caligula, his wife Caesonia, and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla were murdered by a conspiracy under Cassius Chaera. The Praetorian Guard helped Claudius gain the throne. Among Claudius' first decisions was the recalling of his nieces from exile.

Agrippina was soon remarried to the wealthy Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus. He died between 44 and 47, and Agrippina was reportedly suspected of poisoning him in order to inherit his fortune. Lucius was the only heir to his now-wealthy mother.

Adoption by Claudius

Ten-year-old Lucius was still considered unlikely to ever gain the throne. Claudius, fifty-seven years old at this point, had reigned longer than his predecessor and arguably more effectively. Claudius had already had three marriages. He had married Plautia Urgulanilla and Aelia Paetina as a private citizen. He was married to Valeria Messalina at the time of his accession. They had two children, Claudia Octavia (b. 40) and Britannicus (b. 41). Messalina was still likely to produce more heirs.

Messalina, however, was executed in 48, accused of conspiring against her husband. The ambitious Agrippina soon set her sights upon replacing her deceased aunt. On January 1, 49 she became the fourth wife of Claudius. The marriage would last for five years.

Early in the year 50 the Roman Senate offered Agrippina the honorable title of Augusta, previously only held by Livia (14-29). On February 25, 50 Lucius was officially adopted by Claudius as Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus (see adoption in Rome). Nero was older than his adoptive brother Britannicus and effectively became heir to the throne at the time of his adoption.

Claudius honored his adoptive son in several ways. Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of fourteen. He was appointed proconsul, entered and first addressed the Senate, made joint public appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage. In 53 he married his adoptive sister Claudia Octavia.

Emperor

Becoming Augustus

Claudius died on October 13, 54, and Nero was soon established as Augustus in his place. It is not known how much Nero knew or was involved with the death of Claudius, however Suetonius, a prominent Roman writer, transcribed:

...for even if [Nero] was not the instigator of the emperor's death, he was at least privy to it, as he openly admitted; for he used afterwards to laud mushrooms, the vehicle in which the poison was administered to Claudius, as "the food of the gods, as the Greek proverb has it." At any rate, after Claudius' death he vented on him every kind of insult, in act and word, charging him now with folly and now with cruelty; for it was a favorite joke of his to say that Claudius had ceased "to play the fool among mortals,". Nero disregarded many of [Claudius's] decrees and acts as the work of a madman and a dotard.

Nero was seventeen years old, the youngest Emperor yet. Historians generally consider Nero to have acted as a figurehead early in his reign. Actual decisions were likely to have been left to the more capable hands of his mother Agrippina the younger (who Tacitus claims poisoned Claudius), his tutor Seneca, and the praefectus praetorianus Burrus. The first five years under Nero became known as examples of fine administration, even resulting in the coinage of the term "Quinquennium Neronis".

The matters of the Empire were handled effectively and the Senate enjoyed a period of renewed influence in state affairs. Problems, however, would soon arise from Nero's personal life and the increasing competition for influence among Agrippina and the two male advisers. Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage and tended to neglect Octavia. He entered an affair with Claudia Acte, a former slave. In 55, Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that her son dismiss Acte. Burrus and Seneca, on the other hand, chose to support their charge's decision.

Nero resisted the intervention of his mother in his personal affairs. Her influence over her son declining, Agrippina turned to a younger candidate for the throne. Fifteen-year-old Britannicus was still legally a minor under the charge of Nero but was approaching legal adulthood. Britannicus was a likely heir to Nero and ensuring her influence over him could strengthen her position. However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on February 12, 55, the very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set for.

[Nero] attempted the life of Britannicus by poison, not less from jealousy of his voice (for it was more agreeable than his own) than from fear that he might sometime win a higher place than himself in the people's regard because of the memory of his father. He procured the potion from an arch-poisoner, one Locusta, and when the effect was slower than he anticipated, merely physicking Britannicus, he called the woman to him and flogged her with his own hand, charging that she had administered a medicine instead of a poison; and when she said in excuse that she had given a smaller dose to shield him from the odium of the crime, he replied: "It's likely that I am afraid of the Julian law;" and he forced her to mix as swift and instant a potion as she knew how in his own room before his very eyes. Then he tried it on a kid, and as the animal lingered for five hours, had the mixture steeped again and again and threw some of it before a pig. The beast instantly fell dead, whereupon he ordered that the poison be taken to the dining-room and given to Britannicus. The boy dropped dead at the very first taste, but Nero lied to his guests and declared that he was seized with the falling sickness, to which he was subject, and the next day had him hastily and unceremoniously buried in a pouring rain. — Suetonius, De Vita Caesarum

Matricide

Agrippina's power soon further declined while Burrus and Seneca jointly became the most influential men in Rome. While his advisers took care of affairs of state, Nero surrounded himself with a circle of favorites. Roman historians report nights of drunken revelry and violence while more mundane matters of politics were neglected. Among his new favorites was Marcus Salvius Otho. By all accounts Otho was as dissolute as Nero but served as a good and intimate friend to him. Some sources even consider them to be lovers. Otho early introduced Nero to one particular woman who would marry first the favorite (Otho) and then the Emperor: Poppaea Sabina, described as a woman of great beauty, charm, and wit. Gossip of Nero, Otho, and Poppaea each forming parts of a love triangle can be found in numerous sources (Plutarch Galba 19.2-20.2; Suetonius Otho iii.1-2; Tacitus two versions: Histories 1.13.3-4; Annals xiii.45-46; and Dio Cassius lxi.11.2-4).

By 58, Poppaea had become established in her position as Nero's favorite mistress. But Agrippina was an enemy of her son's new female favorite. The following year (59) would mark a turning point in the emperor's reign. Nero and/or Poppaea reportedly machinated the murder of Agrippina. Image:Remorse of Nero.jpg

Then depriving her of all her honors and of her guard of Roman and German soldiers, [Nero] even forbade her to live with him and drove her from the Palace. After that he passed all bounds in harrying her, bribing men to annoy her with lawsuits while she remained in the city, and after she had retired to the country, to pass her house by land and sea and break her rest with abuse and mockery. At last terrified by her violence and threats, he determined to have her life, and after thrice attempting it by poison and finding that she had made herself immune by antidotes, he tampered with the ceiling of her bedroom, contriving a mechanical device for loosening its panels and dropping them upon her while she slept. When this leaked out through some of those connected with the plot, he devised a collapsible boat to destroy her by shipwreck or by the falling in of its cabin. Then he pretended a reconciliation and invited her in a most cordial letter to come to Baiae and celebrate the feast of Minerva with him. On her arrival, instructing his captains to wreck the galley in which she had come, by running into it as if by accident, he detained her at a banquet, and when she would return to Bauli, offered her his contrivance in place of the craft which had been damaged, escorting her to it in high spirits and even kissing her breasts as they parted. The rest of the night he passed sleepless in intense anxiety, awaiting the outcome of his design. On learning that everything had gone wrong and that she had escaped by swimming, driven to desperation he secretly had a dagger thrown down beside her freedman Lucius Agelmus, when he joyfully brought word that she was safe and sound, and then ordered that the freedman be seized and bound, on the charge of being hired to kill the emperor; that his mother be put to death, and the pretense made that she had escaped the consequences of her detected guilt by suicide — Suetonius, De Vita Caesarum

Seneca attempted to convince the Senate that she was orchestrating a conspiracy against her son, but the reputation of the Emperor was damaged beyond repair by this case of matricide. Nero later said that he was haunted by his mother's ghost in the wisp of torch lights. Otho was soon also removed from the imperial court, and sent to Lusitania as governor.

Nero was not quite done yet however, and to complete the matricide Nero murdered his aunt Domitia Lepida Major. Nero visited his aunt while she was sick and she commented that when he shaves his beard (A Roman symbolic act, usually performed during a ceremony at the age of twenty-one), she will gladly die peacefully. Nero turned to those with him and joked, "I'll take it off at once." He then ordered his doctors to overdose his aunt with medicine and seized her property while she was dying.

A series of scandals

The next turning point would be the year 62, for several reasons.

The first would be a change of guard amongst Nero's advisers. Burrus died and Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire from public affairs. Their replacement as praetorian praefect and counselor was Gaius Ofonius Tigellinus. Tigellinus had been exiled in 39 by Caligula on charges of adultery with both Agrippina and Livilla, only to be recalled from exile by Claudius. Ambitious, Tigellinus managed to become a favorite of Nero (and, reputedly, his lover). Along with Poppaea he was considered to hold greater influence with the Augustus than Seneca ever could. One theory suggests that Poppaea attempted, in the four years prior (58-62), to separate Nero from his counselors and friends; in this case, what happened to Burrus and Seneca may not have been casual.

The second significant event of the year was the divorce of the Emperor. Nero was now twenty-five years old, had reigned for eight years, and had yet to produce an heir. When Poppaea became pregnant, Nero finally decided to Py his mistress, but his marriage to Octavia had to be dissolved before doing so. At first he resorted to accusing her of adultery. However, Nero had already gained a reputation for this offense while Octavia was reputed to be an example of virtue. Some testimony was needed against her, but torturing one of her slaves only produced the famous declaration of Pythias reporting the genitalia of Octavia to be cleaner than the mouth of Tigellinus. Nero proceeded to declare the divorce on grounds of infertility, leaving him free to marry Poppaea and wait for her to give birth. However, the sudden death of Octavia on June 9, 62 resulted in incidents of public protest. One of the earliest effects of Tigellinus' advancement was the introduction of a series of treason laws; numerous capital sentences were carried out. During the same year, Nero executed two of his few remaining relatives:

• Gaius Rubellius Plautus - his mother Julia Drusi Caesaris was granddaughter to Tiberius and Vipsania Agrippina through their son Julius Caesar Drusus. She was also granddaughter to Drusus and Antonia Minor through their daughter Livilla.
• Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix - grandson to Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Antonia Major through their daughter Domitia Lepida. He was also maternal half-brother to Messalina. He had married Claudia Antonia, only daughter of Claudius and Aelia Paetina.

Disturbed peace and major rebellions

In 61 a major rebellion broke out in the new province of Britannia, centered upon the native tribal leader Boudica, Queen of the Iceni, who had been flogged and whose daughters had been raped by the Romans. The rebellion was eventually crushed, but the military and civilian casualties and the total destruction of three cities were a heavy toll to pay. The fault of Nero in this rebellion is debatable but there was certainly an impact (both positive and negative) upon the prestige of his regime.

Great Fire of Rome

On the night July 18 to July 19, 64 the Great Fire of Rome erupted. The fire started in densely populated areas like the Suburra, in which had been built the insulae, wooden dwellings, built on three or four floors. Nero was reportedly vacationing in his native Antium, but had to return in haste. The fire burned for a week. It was said that Nero viewed the fire from the tower of Maecenas, and exulting, as Nero said, "with the beauty of the flames," he sang the whole time the "Sack of Ilium," in his regular stage costume. Rumors circulated that Nero had played his lyre and sang, on top of Quirinal Hill, while the city burned. (Tacitus, Ann. xv; Suetonius, Nero xxxvii; Dio Cassius, R.H. lxii.) Over the years, this turned to a legend that Nero had fiddled as Rome burned, an impossible act as the fiddle had not yet been invented. The same accounts depict him opening his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless and arranging for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors. However, Nero lost his chances at redeeming his reputation when he immediately produced plans of rebuilding Rome in a monumental – and less flammable – style; his famous Domus Aurea ("Golden House") was part of his rebuilding plan.

The confused population searched for a scapegoat and soon rumors held Nero responsible. The motivation attributed to him was intending to immortalize his name by renaming Rome to "Neropolis". Nero had to engage in scapegoating of his own and chose for his target a small Eastern sect called Christianity. He ordered known Christians to be thrown to the lions in arenas, while others were crucified in large numbers.

Gaius Cornelius Tacitus described the event:

"And so, to get rid of this rumor, Nero set up [i.e., falsely accused] as the culprits and punished with the utmost refinement of cruelty a class hated for their abominations, who are commonly called Christians. Nero’s scapegoats were the perfect choice because it temporarily relieved pressure of the various rumors going around Rome. Christus, from whom their name is derived, was executed at the hands of the procurator Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius. Checked for a moment, this pernicious superstition again broke out, not only in Iudaea, the source of the evil, but even in Rome... Accordingly, arrest was first made of those who confessed; then, on their evidence, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much on the charge of arson as because of [their] hatred for the human race. Besides being put to death they were made to serve as objects of amusement; they were clothed in the hides of beasts and torn to death by dogs; others were crucified, others set on fire to serve to illuminate the night when daylight failed. Nero had thrown open his grounds for the display, and was putting on a show in the circus, where he mingled with the people in the dress of charioteer or drove about in his chariot. All this gave rise to a feeling of pity, even towards men whose guilt merited the most exemplary punishment; for it was felt that they were being destroyed not for the public good but to gratify the cruelty of an individual." - Tacitus, Annales, xv.44

It is entirely unknown who or what was the cause of the fire. Ancient sources and scholars favor Nero as the arsonist, but fires were common in ancient Rome.

Nero the artist and the Olympic Games

Image:As-Nero-Ara pacis-RIC 0562.jpg

Nero considered himself a great artist and performer, and did not hesitate to show off his "gifts". It was considered shameful for a Roman emperor to appear as a public entertainer, acting, singing, and playing his lyre. Nero, however, loved to perform before a crowd and craved the attention and applause. When he was performing, he insisted that all attention be on him during his entire performance.

While he was singing no one was allowed to leave the theater even for the most urgent reasons. And so it is said that some women gave birth to children there, while many who were worn out with listening and applauding, secretly leaped from the wall, since the gates at the entrance were closed, or feigned death and were carried out as if for burial. - Suetonius, De Vita Caesarum

Hated by many citizens, with an increasing list of political enemies, Nero started to appreciate his loneliness, when in 65 he discovered the Pisonian conspiracy (named after Gaius Calpurnius Piso, who intended to take his place) and the involvement of old friends like Seneca in the plot. Conspirators were forced into suicide.

In addition, Nero ordered that Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, a popular and valuable general, commit suicide because of the mere suspicion of new threats. This decision moved military commanders, locally and in the provinces, to start planning a revolution. Also at about this time, according to tradition, Nero personally ordered the crucifixion of Saint Peter and, later, the beheading of Paul of Tarsus.

In 66, though Nero doted on Poppaea, he reportedly kicked her to death while she was pregnant and ill, because she complained that he came home late from the races. Poppaea had previously borne him a daughter, Claudia Augusta, who died of illness after four months. Nero still lacked an heir.

The emperor left for Greece in 67, where he participated in the Olympic Games and performed as a singer while in Rome Nymphidius (a colleague of Tigellinus, taking the place of one of the Pisonian conspirators) was collecting the support of praetorians and Senators. Nero's participation went along with huge sums of bribery; the Greeks postponed the Games upon Nero's wish and furthermore introduced the chariot race. A magnificent villa in Olympia was erected for Nero's stay (and can be visited at the archaelogical site). Even though Nero proved to be an unworthy competitor, he won the Games nevertheless due to his bribes and cheating.

When performing, Nero was said to have had a keen rivalry with his opponents:

As if his rivals were of quite the same station as himself, he used to show respect to them and try to gain their favor, while he slandered them behind their backs, sometimes assailed them with abuse when he met them, and even bribed those who were especially proficient. When the victory was won, he made the announcement himself; and for that reason he always took part in the contests of the heralds. To obliterate the memory of all other victors in the games and leave no trace of them, their statues and busts were all thrown down by his order, dragged off with hooks, and cast into [sewers] - Suetonius, De Vita Caesarum

Suicide

Template:Campaignbox Year of the Four Emperors Back in Rome after a year, Nero found quite a cold atmosphere; Gaius Julius Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, revolted, and this brought Nero to a paranoid hunt for eventual threats; in this state of mind he ordered the elimination of any patrician with suspect ideas. His once faithful servant Galba, governor of Iberia, was one of those dangerous nobles, so he ordered his death. Galba, lacking an alternative choice, declared his loyalty to the Senate and the People of Rome, no longer recognizing Nero's power. Moreover, he started organizing his own campaign for the empire.

As a result, Lucius Clodius Macer, legate of the legion III Augusta in Africa, revolted and stopped sending grain to Rome. Nymphidius corrupted the imperial guard, which turned against Nero on the promise of financial reward by Galba.

The Senate deposed Nero, who committed suicide on June 9, 68. It is said that he uttered these last words before slitting his throat: "Qualis artifex pereo; What an artist dies in me!" With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued in the Year of the four emperors.

Nero - mad or misunderstood?

Template:Section-stub Much of Nero's blackened reputation relies on later hostile non-contemporary senatorial historians such as Suetonius, as one can see from these quotes:

Although at first Nero's acts of wantonness, lust, extravagance, avarice and cruelty were gradual, some thought that they might be dismissed as senslessness of youth. However even then their nature was such that no one doubted that they were defects of his character and not due to his time of life.-Suetonius, Nero XXVI

While homosexual relations were not uncommon during this time, Nero took it a step further and castrated his lover, had a ceremony complete with a bridal veil and full dowry, and all while Nero "imitated the cries and lamentations of a maiden being deflowered" during the ceremony

He castrated the boy Sporus and actually tried to make a woman of him; and he married him with all the usual ceremonies, including a dowry and a bridal veil, took him to his home attended by a great throng, and treated him as his wife. And the witty jest that someone made is still current, that it would have been well for the world if Nero's father Domitius had had that kind of wife. This Sporus, decked out with the finery of the empresses and riding in a litter, he took with him to the courts and marts of Greece, and later at Rome through the Street of the Images, fondly kissing him from time to time. That he even desired illicit relations with his own mother, and was kept from it by her enemies, who feared that such a relationship might give the reckless and insolent woman too great influence, was notorious, especially after he added to his concubines a courtesan who was said to look very like Agrippina. Even before that, so they say, whenever he rode in a litter with his mother, he had incestuous relations with her, which were betrayed by the stains on his clothing. Suetonius, Nero, XXVIII [1].

Nero in ancient literature

Classical sources

• Annals (Tacitus)
• Suetonius' Lives of the Twelve Caesars

Template:Section-stub

Talmud

A Jewish legend contained in the Talmud (tractate Gittin 56B) claims that Nero shot four arrows to the four corners of the earth, and they fell in Jerusalem. Thus he realized that the Lord had decided to allow the Temple to be destroyed. He also requested a Jewish religious student to show him the Bible verse most appropriate to that situation, and the young boy read to Nero Ezekiel's prophecy about God's revenge on the nation of Edom (Ezekiel 25) for their destruction of Jerusalem. Nero thus realized that the Lord would punish him for destroying his Temple, so he fled Rome and converted to Judaism, to avoid such retribution. In this telling, his descendant is Rabbi Meir, a prominent supporter of Bar Kokhba's rebellion against Roman rule.

New Testament

Some scholarsTemplate:Facts believe that the Number of the Beast, 666, featured in the Book of Revelation is a reference to the Roman Emperor Nero. Alternative spellings of Nero include Neron which calculates to 666. The name Nero without the last n calculates to 616 and some manuscripts of Revelation contain that number instead of 666Template:Fact.

Later Christian writers

Template:Main Sibylline Oracles, Book 3, allegedly written before Nero's time, prophesies anti-christ and identifies him with Nero. However, it was actually written long after him and this identification was in any case rejected by Irenaeus in Against Heresies, Book 5, 27-30. They represent the mid-point in the change between the New Testament's identification of the past (Nero) or current (Domitian) antichrist, and later Christian writers' concern with the future anti-christ. One of these later writers is Commodianus whose Institutes, 1.41, states that the future antichrist will be Nero returned from hell.

Nero in medieval literature

Usually as a stock exemplar of vice or a bad ruler

• In the Golden Legend, and its apochryphal account of his forcing Seneca the Younger's suicide, where they meet face to face on this occasion.
• In Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, The Monk's Prologue and Tale
• Giovanni Boccaccio's Concerning the Falls of Illustrious Men
• Surprisingly, he does not seem to appear in Dante Alighieri's Inferno

Nero in modern culture

Literature and film/TV adaptations

• Nero's rule is described in the novel Quo Vadis by Henryk Sienkiewicz, filmed various times. In the 1951 version, Nero is played by actor Peter Ustinov.
• Nero appears in Robert Graves' books I, Claudius and Claudius the God (and the BBC miniseries adapted from the book, played by Christopher Biggins), which is a fictional autobiography of the Emperor Claudius.
• In the film version of Philip Jose Farmer's Riverworld series of novels, Nero takes the place of the book's principal villain King John of England. Nero was portrayed by English actor Jonathan Cake.
• Federico Fellini's film Satyricon portrays life in the time of the rule of Nero.

Other TV and film

• Nero was depicted in one episode of the "Peabody's Improbable History" segments of the Rocky and Bullwinkle animated series.
• In the second-season Doctor Who episode The Romans, aired in 1965, the Doctor (played by William Hartnell) is seen accidentally giving Nero (played by Derek Francis) the idea of intentionally burning Rome in order to provide space for a new palace.
• Hans Matheson portrayed Nero in the second episode (Nerone) of the mini-series Imperium (2004).
• In the classic British children's television show, Danger Mouse, the villainous Baron Greenback has a fluffy white pet caterpillar named Nero.

Other literature

• Anthony Burgess' book The Kingdom of the Wicked covers a similar period including Nero's reign and his relationship with the early Christians.
• Nero and his contemporaries appear in the historical novel The Roman by Mika Waltari.
• In the fifth book of Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events, the evil school principal is called Nero. He is a harsh and uncompromising despot who forces his students to listen to his violin concerts, and continues to play as the school burns down, a clear allusion to the myth of the fiddle/lyre-playing emperor.

Other Popular Culture

• A 1940s comic book title Leading Comics featured an anthropomorphic fox named "Nero Fox," who was shown playing a saxophone instead of a fiddle (as other fictional parodies of Nero often show). Nero Fox later appeared again in the 1980s comic series Captain Carrot and His Amazing Zoo Crew, when several members of the Zoo Crew superhero team were sent back in time to ancient Rome.
• Nero Burning ROM is a popular CD-RW burning program; the name is a play on the traditional idea of him burning Rome. One of the icons for the program shows the Colosseum in Rome with flames around it. It should be noted that this is historically inaccurate as the Colosseum was built by the emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian on top of the razed Domus Aurea.
• In the 2005 movie "The Exorcism of Emily Rose," The demon that supposedly possesed Emily Rose had also possessed Nero.
• Nero is an avatar of the Eddorian Gharlane in E.E. (Doc) Smith's Lensman novel Triplanetary.
• He is mentioned, though in the wrong period, in Ivor Novello's song If you wonder what a duke should be, heard in the film Gosford Park:

In B.C. 33 Ah, me! That's a dash long time ago.

There lived a Roman hero who had shaken hands with Nero.

And the history you shall know.

He was introduced to the king of Gaul, whoever that might be.

And crossing in galley with a Norman wench got pally

They went and founded me.

• Also, as a convenient rhyme for hero, in a Satchmo song

External links

Template:Wikiquote Template:Commons

Primary sources

• Life of Nero (Suetonius; English translation and Latin original)
• Cassius Dio, Books 61‑63

Suetonius. The Lives of the twelve Caesars: Nero

• http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suet-nero-rolfe.html

Secondary material

• http://www.romansonline.com/Persns.asp?IntID=5&Ename=Nero
• http://www.roman-emperors.org/nero.htm
• http://www.bible-history.com/nero/
• http://www.roman-empire.net/emperors/nero.html

Template:Start box Template:Succession box one to two Template:End box

Template:Suetonius 12 Caesarsbg:Нерон ca:Neró cs:Nero da:Nero de:Nero et:Nero el:Νέρων es:Nerón eo:Nerono eu:Neron fr:Néron gl:Nerón ko:네로 hr:Neron it:Nerone he:נירון קיסר la:Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus lt:Neronas nl:Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ja:ネロ no:Nero nn:Nero av Romarriket pl:Neron pt:Nero ro:Nero ru:Нерон sk:Nero sl:Neron sr:Нерон fi:Nero sv:Nero zh:尼禄