Partition of India
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Image:Partition of India.PNG The partition of India refers to the creation in August 1947 of two sovereign states of India and Pakistan when Britain granted independence to the former British Raj including treaty states (see Undivided India). In particular it refers to the partition of Bengal and Punjab, the two main provinces of the would be Pakistan.
The later division of Pakistan, when its eastern wing separated into Bangladesh, is not covered by the term Partition of India, nor is the term used in reference to earlier separation of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and Burma (now Myanmar) from British administration of India. Ceylon was part of Madras Presidency from 1795 until it was made a separate Crown Colony in 1798. Burma was annexed by the British gradually during 1826-1886 and was governed as a part of British Indian administration until 1937, when it was established as a Crown Colony separate from India. Burma was granted independence on January 4, 1948 and Ceylon was granted independence on February 4, 1948. Template:Further As for the rest of South Asia, Nepal and Bhutan had treaties with the British that designated them as independent states unlike the 'treaty states' (or princely states) which are covered under "Partion of India". Burma (or Myanmar) is generally not considered part of South Asia, irrespective of the fact that it was administered as part of British India for a century or so, since it otherwise shares very little terms of history and geography with South Asia.
Pakistan and India
Two self-governing dominions within the British Commonwealth legally came into existence at the stroke of midnight on August 15, 1947. The ceremonies for the transfer of power were held a day earlier in Karachi, the capital of the new state of Pakistan, to allow the last British Viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, to attend both the ceremony in Karachi and the ceremony in Delhi. Pakistan celebrates its Independence Day on August 14, while India celebrates it on August 15.
Background of the partition
Seeds of partition
The seeds of partition were sown long before independence, in the struggle between various factions of the Indian nationalist movement, and especially of the Indian National Congress, for control of the movement. Muslims felt threatened by Hindu majorities. The Hindus, in their turn, felt that the nationalist leaders were coddling the minority Muslims and slighting the majority Hindus.
The All India Muslim League (AIML) was formed in 1906 by Muslims who were suspicious of the mainstream, secular but Hindu-majority Indian National Congress. A number of different scenarios were proposed at various times. Among the first to make the demand for a separate state was the writer/philosopher Allama Iqbal, who, in his presidential address to the 1930 convention of the Muslim League said that he felt a separate nation for Muslims was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated subcontinent. The Sindh Assembly passed a resolution making it a demand in 1935. Iqbal, Jauhar and others then worked hard to draft Mohammad Ali Jinnah, who had till then worked for Hindu Muslim unity, to lead the movement for this new nation. By 1930, Jinnah had despaired of Indian politics, particularly getting mainstream parties such as the Congress (of which he was once a member) to be sensitive to minority priorities. At the 1940 AIML conference in Lahore, Jinnah made clear his commitment to two separate states, a position from which the League never again wavered:
- "The Hindus and the Muslims belong to two different religions, philosophies, social customs and literature . . . To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the government of such a state."
However, Hindu organisations such as the Hindu Mahasabha, though against the division of the country, were also insisting on the same chasm between Hindus and Muslims. In 1937 at the open session of the Hindu Mahasabha held at Ahmedabad, Veer Savarkar in his presidential address asserted:
- "India cannot be assumed today to be Unitarian and homogeneous nation, but on the contrary there are two nations in the main - the Hindus and the Muslims."
Many of the Congress leaders were secularists and resolutely opposed the division of India on the lines of religion. The extremely influential Mohandas Gandhi, popular among both Hindus and Muslims, was both religious and irenic, believing that Hindus and Muslims could and should live in amity. He opposed the partition, saying,
- "My whole soul rebels against the idea that Hinduism and Islam represent two antagonistic cultures and doctrines. To assent to such a doctrine is for me a denial of God."
For years, Gandhi and his adherents struggled to keep Muslims in the Congress Party (a major exit of many Muslim activists began in the 1930s), in the process enraging both Hindu and Muslim extremists. (Gandhi was assassinated soon after Partition by Nathuram Godse, who believed that Gandhi was appeasing Muslims at the cost of Hindus.) Politicians and community leaders on both sides whipped up mutual suspicion and fear, culminating in dreadful events such as the riots during the Muslim League's "Direct Action Day" of August 1946 in Calcutta, in which more than 5,000 people were killed and many more injured. As public order broke down all across northern India and Bengal, the pressure increased to seek a political partition of territories as a way to avoid a full-scale civil war.
Right until 1946, the definition of Pakistan as demanded by the League was so flexible that it could have been interpreted as a sovereign nation Pakistan, or as a member of a confederated India. A few historians believe that this was Jinnah's doing and that he intended to use Pakistan as a means of bargaining in order to gain more independence for the Muslim dominated provinces in the west from the Hindu dominated center.
Many other experts believe that Jinnah's real vision was for a Pakistan that extended into Hindu-majority areas of India, by demanding the inclusion of the East of Punjab and West of Bengal, including Assam, all Hindu-majority country. Jinnah also fought hard for the annexation of Kashmir a Muslim majority state with Hindu ruler; and the accession of Hyderabad and Junagadh Hindu-majority states with Muslim rulers. Such political devices bring into question Jinnah's Two-Nation Theory by his interest in areas with heavy Hindu populations.
State of affairs before the partition
The British colonial administration did not directly rule all of "India". There were several different political arrangements in existence:
- Provinces ruled directly
- Princely States with varying legal arrangements
Main political players
Political groupings
- British Colonial Administration
- Indian National Congress
- Hindu Mahasabha
- All India Muslim League
- Unionist Muslim League (mainly in the Punjab)
Personalities
(in alphabetic order by last name)
- Mahatma Gandhi
- Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
- Subhash Chandra Bose
- Allama Iqbal, leader of AIML who coined the idea of Pakistan
- Mohammad Ali Jinnah, leader of the All India Muslim League
- Liaquat Ali Khan, Jinnah's right-hand man
- Lord Louis Mountbatten, Viceroy of the Emperor of India
- Jawaharlal Nehru, popular icon and leader of the Congress Party
- Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, considered the "Iron Man of India," Gandhiji's right-hand and Congress Party leader
The process of division
The actual division between the two new dominions was done according to what has come to be known as the 3rd June Plan or Mountbatten Plan.
Border definition
The border between India and Pakistan was determined by a British Government-commissioned report usually referred to as the Radcliffe Award after the London lawyer, Sir Cyril Radcliffe, who wrote it. Pakistan came into being with two separate wings, East Pakistan (today Bangladesh) and West Pakistan, separated geographically by India. India was formed out of the majority Hindu regions of the colony, and Pakistan from the majority Muslim areas.
Legal arrangements
On July 18, 1947, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act that finalized the partition arrangement. The Government of India Act 1935 was adapted to provide a legal framework for the two new dominions.
The Princely States
The 565 Princely States were given a choice of which country to join. Those states that chose a country at odds with their majority religion, such as Junagadh, Hyderabad, and especially Kashmir, became the subject of much dispute.
Expedited, controversial process
The Partition was a highly controversial arrangement, and remains a cause of much tension on the Subcontinent today. British Viceroy Lord Mountbatten not only rushed the process through, but also is alleged to have influenced the Radcliffe awards in India's favor.
Some critics allege that British haste led to the cruelties of the Partition. Because independence was declared prior to the actual Partition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order. No large population movements were contemplated; the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the new state line. It was an impossible task, at which both states failed. There was a complete breakdown of law and order; millions (no one knows how many) died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was the largest population movement in recorded history.
However, some argue that the British were forced to expedite the Partition by events on the ground. Law and order had broken down many times before Partition, with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. The only way the British could have maintained law and order would have been through martial law, and that could not have prevented communal violence throughout India, or the inevitable clashes that would come with partition. If Mountbatten had delayed partition and independence any longer, the death toll would have been in the millions. By rushing the process through, some say, Mountbatten saved more lives than were lost in the Partition.
Population Exchanges
Massive population exchanges occurred between the two newly-formed nations in the months immediately following Partition. Once the lines were established, about 14.5 million people crossed the borders to what they hoped was the relative safety of religious majority. Based on 1951 Census of displaced persons, 7.226 million Muslims went to Pakistan from India while 7.249 million Hindus and Sikhs moved to India from Pakistan immediately after partition. About 11.2 million or 78% of the population transfer was on the west, with Punjab accounting for most of it; 5.3 million Muslims moved from India to West Punjab in Pakistan, 3.4 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from Pakistan to East Punjab in India; elsewhere in the west 1.2 million moved in each direction to and from Sind. The initial population transfer on the east involved 3.5 million Hindus moving from East Bengal to India and only 0.7 million Muslims moving the other way.
Massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border as the newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude. Estimates of the number of deaths vary from two hundred thousand to a million.Template:Ref
The present-day religious demographics of India proper and former East and West Pakistan
Template:Col-begin Template:Col-break Despite the huge migrations during and after Partition, secular and federal India is still home to the third largest Muslim population in the world. The current estimates for India (see Demographics of India) are as shown below. Islamic Pakistan, the former West Pakistan, has smaller minority population. Its religious distribution is below (see Demographics of Pakistan) is believed to be:As for Bangladesh, the former East Pakistan, the non-Muslim share is somewhat larger (see Demographics of Bangladesh):
India (2005 Est. 1,080 million vs. 1951 Census 361 million)
- 80.46% Hindu (869 million)
- 13.43% Muslims (145 million)
- 2.34% Christians (25 million)
- 1.87% Sikhs (20 million)
- 1.88% Buddhists, Jains, Parsis and others (21 million)
Pakistan (2005 Est. 162 vs. 1951 Census 34 million)
- 98.0% Muslims (159 million)
- 1.0% Christians (1.62 million)
- 1.0% Hindus, Sikhs and others (1.62 million)
Bangladesh (2005 Est. 144 vs. 1951 Census 42 million)
- 86% Muslims (124 million)
- 13% Hindus (18 million)
- 1% Christians, Buddhists and Animists (1.44 million)
Division of assets
The assets of the legal entity that was “India” as of August 15, 1947, namely the British Indian Empire, were divided between the two dominions. The process became involved. Mahatma Gandhi went on hunger strike at one point to pressure the government of the Union of India to transfer funds, an action that is mentioned as one of the “grievances” cited by the group that assassinated him.
Present-day status of refugees in both India and Pakistan
Both nations have to a great extent assimilated the refugees.
Refugees settled in India
Many Sikhs and Hindu Punjabis settled in the Indian part of Punjab and in Delhi. The responsibility of rehabilitating Hindu Sindhis was borne by all the states in Indian Union, but most Sindhis settled in the western states of Gujarat and Maharashtra. Sindhis have contributed greatly towards industrializing India. The Hindus migrating from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) settled mainly in West Bengal and Tripura, leading to the sudden burst of population. The migrated population were often settled in "colonies" that were small areas where only the migrated people used to live. Some migrants were sent to the Andaman islands where they started as settlers. The migrants had to go through a lot of trouble in both the eastern and western border regions, as many of them were virtually penniless. However, gradually the migrants were assimilated in India.
In late 2004 Sindhis vociferously opposed a Public Interest Litigation in the Supreme Court of India which asked the government of India to delete the word Sindh from the Indian National Anthem (written before the partition) on the grounds that it infringed upon the sovereignty of Pakistan.
Former refugees have also played an active role in Indian politics. The current Indian Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh, is a Punjabi Sikh. The leader of the opposition BJP, L.K. Advani, is a Sindhi born in Karachi (his family emigrated in 1953). Both were born in what is now known as Pakistan. Former Chief Minister of West Bengal, Jyoti Basu, who has the distinction of being the longest-serving Chief Minister of India, hails from a family that migrated to India from East Bengal. The former prime minister of India, IK Gujaral was born in Pakistan.
These people have now lost their refugee status as such.
Refugees settled in Pakistan
The descendants of refugees in Pakistan often refer to themselves as Muhajir. Muhajirs come from many different ethnic groups and regions in India, including Uttar Pradesh (then known as "United Provinces of Agra and Awadh", or UP), Madhya Pradesh (then Central Province or "CP"), Gujarat, Bihar, what was then the princely state of Hyderabad and so on. They are united by their refugee status and the Urdu language.
The current president of Pakistan, Pervez Musharraf, was born in Delhi, India.
Aftermath
Violence between Hindus and Muslims, or between India and Pakistan, did not end with the Partition. India has been riven by clashes between Hindus and Muslims; the Hindus remaining in Pakistan have complained of persecution. The two neighbors have also fought three full-scale and one limited war in Kargil.
Integration of refugee populations with their new countries did not always go smoothly. The Urdu speaking Muslims who migrated to Pakistan have complained that they are discriminated against in government employment. Municipal political conflict in Karachi, Pakistan's largest city, often pitted native Sindhis against immigrants. Immigrant Sindhis and Punjabis in India also experienced poverty and discrimination. However, fifty years after the Partition such conflicts have largely subsided.
India and Pakistan have also gone to war four times:
These wars have been generally inconclusive with both sides claiming victories.
They have also engaged in a nuclear arms race which has at times threatened to erupt into nuclear war.
The British-Tibetan border, winding as it did through the Himalayas, had never been definitively surveyed or marked. India, as the inheritor of a long stretch of the British borders, and the People's Republic of China, as the conqueror of Tibet, eventually clashed, leading to the 1962 Sino-Indian War.
All of the four nations resulting from the Partition of the British Raj have had to deal with endemic civil conflicts. These include:
- In 1971, Bangladesh Liberation War between Bangladesh and Pakistan (called the Pakistani Civil War by Pakistan) earned independence for the new country of People's Republic of Bangladesh
- The Sikh separatist movement in the Punjab, resulting in the Golden Temple Raid in 1984 and the Punjab insurgency
- Insurgency in Kashmir
- The Mohajir movement in Pakistan and riots in Karachi
- Civil conflict in Sri Lanka between Sinhalese and Tamils
- Civil conflict between the Burmese central government and hill tribes such as the Karen
Some political scientists, like Ernest Gellner, would argue that this is due to an imported Western political theory, nationalism. The same theory that justified Indian rebellion against the British could also justify minority rebellion against the four new governments formed from the Raj — particularly as they were new and lacked the legitimacy of custom and antiquity.
Artistic depictions of the Partition
In addition to the enormous historical literature on the Partition, there is also an extensive body of artistic work (novels, short stories, poetry, films, plays, paintings, etc.) that deals imaginatively with the pain and horror of the event. See Artistic depictions of the partition of India for further discussion and a list of relevant works.
See also
- Indian independence movement
- Pakistan Movement
- British Empire
- East Bengal
- History of Bangladesh
- History of India
- History of Pakistan
- Kashmiri insurgency
- Decolonisation
- Indo-Pakistani War of 1947
- Artistic depictions of the partition of India
Notes
External links
- Partition of India by A G Noorani.
- Pre-Partition Map of India
- The Story of Pakistan
- The library of the University of California at Berkeley maintains a collection of pointers to online documents South Asian History: Colonial India, including numerous documents about independence and partition
- Fordham University maintains an archive of relevant public-domain documents.
- One scholar's bibliography
Further reading
- Azad, Maulana Abul Kalam: India Wins Freedom. ISBN 8125005145
- Butalia, Urvashi (1998).The Other Side of Silence (2nd U.S. printing). Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-2494-6
- Collins, Larry and Dominique Lapierre: Freedom at Midnight. London: Collins, 1975. ISBN 0006388515
- Goel, Sita Ram: Muslim Separatism - Causes and Consequences. Voice of India, New Delhi. [1]
- Gossman, P. (1999). Riots and Victims. Westview Press. ISBN 0813336252
- David Page, Anita Inder Singh, Penderel Moon, G. D. Khosla, Mushirul Hasan (2001). The Partition Omnibus: Prelude to Partition/the Origins of the Partition of India 1936-1947/Divide and Quit/Stern Reckoning. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019565850-7
- Seshadri, Hongasandra Venkataramaiah: The Tragic Story of Partition. 1. ed. - Bangalore : Jagarana Prakashana, 1982.
- Qureshi, Ishtiaque Hussain. A Short History of Pakistan. University of Karachi Press.
- Talib, S. Gurbachan Singh. Muslim League Attack on Sikhs and Hindus in the Punjab 1947. Delhi: Voice of India. 1991. [2]fr:Partition des Indes