Pericles
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- For the Shakespeare play, see Pericles, Prince of Tyre.
{{Infobox Military Person
|name= Pericles
|image= Image:Pericles.jpg
|caption= Pericles
|allegiance= Athens
|rank= general
|commands=
|nickname=
|lived= c. 495 BC – 429 BC
|placeofbirth= Athens
|placeofdeath= Athens
|laterwork=
|battles= Expulsion of barbarians from Gallipoli
Battle in Sicyon and Acarnania (454 BC)
Battle in Delphi (448 BC)
Samian War (440 BC)
Besiege of Byzantium (438 BC)
Peloponnesian War (431 BC-429 BC)
|portrayedby=
}}
Pericles (ca. 495 BC-429 BC, Greek : Template:Polytonic) was an influential and important leader of Athens during the Athenian Golden Age (specifically, between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars), from the Alcmaeonidae family. The period from 461 BC to 429 BC is sometimes known as "The Age of Pericles" (Though this terminology can extend to all the way to 379 BC). He was responsible for an ambitious buliding project which included most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis (including the Parthenon). Of particular importance, he fostered the power of democracy, in such an extent that some researchers and historians accuse him for populism.
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Early years
Pericles was born in 495 BC<ref>According to other researchers Pericles was born around 490 BC</ref> in the deme of Cholargus, just north of Athens. He was the son of the politician Xanthippus, under the leadership of whom Athenians had won in Mycale in 479 BC, though 5 years before, in 484 BC, the fickle public had ostracized him. Pericles' mother, Agariste, was the offspring of the noble though controversial family of the Alcmaeonids. It was this dynastic marriage that boosted Xanthippus' political career. Agariste was the great-granddaughter of the tyrant of Sicyon Cleisthenes and the nephew of the Athenian reformer Cleisthenes, also belonging to the Alcmaeonidae family <ref>See article Pericles in the encyclopedia The Helios and the same article in Britannica</ref>. According to the myth exposed by Herodotus and Plutarch <ref>See article Pericles in the enceclopedia The Helios</ref>, a few days before Pericles' birth, Agariste dreamed she bore a lion, an ambivalent symbolism, reminding the unusual size of Pericles' skull. Noteworthy, the asymmetric dimensions of his head gave the opportunity to the comedians of his era to taunt and revile him.
Pericles, who belonged to the local tribe of Acamantis (Aκαμαντίδα φυλή), passed his early years quietly, avoiding any public appearances and being absorbed in his profound studies. After all, he was never naturally extroverted.
His family's nobleness and wealth allowed him to prompt his natural inclination towards education and schooling. He was taught music by masters of this art (Damon or Pythokleides <ref>See article Pericles in the encyclopedia The Helios and the same article in Britannica</ref>) and he constituted the first politician, who attributed great importance to the philosophy. He enjoyed the society of Zeno of Elea and Anaxagoras. The latter became a close friend of him and exercised a great influence on his personality. Traits of his political attitude, such as the splendor of his thoughts and the rhetoric charisma, are due partly to the philosopher’s teaching. Pericles is also said to have learned from him impassivity in the face of trouble and skepticism about alleged divine phenomena. His proverbial calmness and self-control are also regarded as resulting from the philosopher’s influence.
His political career until 431 BC
Entering politics
If his long political career lasted more than 40 years <ref>as estimated by Plutarch and Cicero</ref>, he must have entered politics about 469 BC. During all these years he endeavored to protect his privacy and to consist a model for his compatriots. Hence, he was avoiding banquets, trying to be frugal.
In 463 BC Pericles was the leading prosecutor against Cimon, who was accused for neglecting Athens' interests in Macedonia. Cimon was acquitted, since his prosecutor did not act in a fervent way <ref>See Plutarch</ref>. Nonetheless, this confrontation proved that his major opponent was vulnerable and ‘’Pericles’’ was ready for his next hit.
Ostracizing Cimon
It was high time Pericles attacked the conservatism’s den, Areios Pagos, the hub of the aristocracy. The leader of the Democratic Party and mentor of Pericles, Ephialtes, proposed the shrunk of Areios Pagos’ powers and, without serious reactions, the ecclesia adopted Ephialtes' proposal. The Democratic Party was gradually becoming dominant in Athenian politics and Pericles seemed willing to do whatever was necessary, in order to cajole the public. But we must not be harsh against him; his stance can be explained, if we take into consideration the fact that his main opponent was too reach and generous, having no problem to donate large chunks of his fortune. The only way he could vie with him was the promotion of a populist social policy, pleasing to the mob. He passed a law, according to which those poor could watch the theatrical plays, without paying, since the state would reimburse the equivalent price. By another law, he bestowed generous wages to all the citizens, who were participating in the court of Heliaia (Ηλιαία). However, his most controversial measure was a law, confining Athenian citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides. But was young ‘’Pericles’’ really a demagogue, as accused by many sides?
According to the major modern Greek historian, Konstantinos Paparrigopoulos <ref>See his History of the Greek nation, Volume Ab, page 145.</ref>, Pericles sought for the expansion and stabilization of all democratic institutions with the accession to the political system of the lower taxes, prohibited by the status quo ante from being more active and from occupying public offices<ref>See also Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 24. </ref>. On the other hand, Cimon stayed firm in his stance that there was no further free space for democratic evolution. He was definite that democracy had reached its peak and Pericles’ reforms were leading to the stalemate of populism. Who was right? According to Paparrigopoulos, history vindicated Cimon, since Athens, after Pericles’ death, sunk in the abyss of political turmoil and demagogy. But did this regression emerge due to anterior policies of Pericles? Paparrigopoulos is sure about his guilty, but history allows various interpretations.
The fact is that, in 451 BC, Pericles launched his last and politically fatal launch against Cimon. He used the weapon of ostracism, in order to eliminate his formidable opponent. The ostensible accusation was that Cimon betrayed his city, acting as a friend of Sparta, an accusation usually attached to the members of the conservative party. In 461 BC, Ephialtes had been murdered and, now, the unchallengeable leader of the Democratic Party was, also, becoming the unchallengeable leader of Athens, lacking any robust opposition after the expulsion of his most menacing opponent.
Leading Athens
Pericles wanted to stabilize Athens' dominance in its alliance and to enforce its preeminence in Greece. In 454 BC BC the treasury of the alliance was transferred from Delos to Athens, a decision pointing out Athens' will to exert a more solid leadership over its allies. It was from this treasury that Pericles drew the necessary funds, in order to materialize his ambitious building plan centered on the Acropolis; a plan that included Propylaea, Parthenon and the gold statue of Athena, created by Pericles’ friend, Phidias. These magnificent monuments constitute the most important heritage of ‘’Pericles’’, the greatest pride of his political career.
First expeditions
Image:Parthenon from south.jpg
In 454 BC we see for the first time Pericles leading a military excursion. He attacked Sicyon and Acarnania <ref>Thucydides, I, 111</ref>. At the same period, Cimon is said to have returned in Athens after a proposal of Pericles, en event indicating a shift in his political philosophy. Plutarch underlines that Cimon made a deal with his opponent, according to which Pericles would carry through the interior affairs and Cimon would be the leader of the Athenian army, campaigning abroad. If true, was this deal a concession of Pericles' that he was not a great strategist?
Showing some signs of panhellenism Pericles summoned a meeting of all Greek state to consider the question of rebuilding the temples destroyed by the Persians. The meeting failed because of Sparta's stance, but the main question remains unanswerable: Were Pericles' real intentions to prompt some kind of confederation or just to assert Athenian leadership? The second hypothesis seems more realistic, since no sincere and plain panhellenic visions existed during this period in Greece.
In order to establish the Athenian population in new lands, Pericles engaged in his most admired campaign, the expulsion of barbarians from the Thracian Chersonese Gallipoli. The major problem for Athens was now the revolts of its allies (or of its subjects, if we want to be more accurate). In 448 BC he led again the Athenian army against the residents in Delphi and a year later the conservatives of Thebes conspired against the democratic fraction, but Pericles proposed a moderate reaction.
In 445 BC a new, more dangerous arousal erupted. Euboea and Megara revolted, and, before Pericles could gather his troops, the army of Sparta invaded Attica. Through briberies <ref>Thucydides, II, 21 and Aristophanes, Acharnai</ref> and negotiations, Pericles repulsed the imminent threat, Spartan army retired, Euboea was quickly reduced and the arrangement was ratified by the Thirty Years' Peace (winter 446 BC–445 BC).
The final battle with the conservatives
In 444 BC the conservative and the Democratic Party confronted each other in a fierce battle. The new leader of the conservatives, Thucydides, son of Melesias accused Pericles for profligacy, criticizing the way Pericles spent the money for his ambitious building plan. Thucydides managed to incite the passions in ecclesia in his favor, but when the genius leader of the democrats took the floor, the atmosphere immediately changed. Pericles proposed to return to the all the expenses he did from his own money, under the term that all these monuments would belong to him and not to Athens. The public applauded his stance and Thucydides suffered an unexpected defeat from the charismatic orator. In 443 BC Thucydides got ostracized for 10 years and Pericles remained once again unchallenged in the Athenian political arena.
The Samian War
The war in Samos was the last important military event before the Peloponnesian War. After Thucydides's osracism, Pericles was being continuously reelected to the generalship, the only office he was officially occupying, although he constituted the absolute ruler of Athens. Samos was at war with Miletus, whose the part Pericles took. In a naval battle the Athenians led by Pericles and the other 9 generals defeated the forces of Samos and imposed to the island an administration pleasing to them. When the Samians revolted against the appointed by the Athenians local government, Pericles besieged the rebels and imposed his will after a tough besiege of 9 months, which resulted in huge discontent by the Athenian sailors. Pericles subdued also Byzantium and, when he returned to Athens, he delivered himself the funeral oration.
Pericles led once again Athens' naval forces towards Byzantium in 438 BC in a demonstration of its preeminence<ref>See article Pericles in the enceclopedia The Helios</ref>, but no other event happened, until the eruption of the Peloponnesian War. Pericles concentrated his focus mostly on internal affairs and on the creation of new colonies, such as Naxos and Thourioi (444 BC) as well as Amphipolis.
Personal attacks
Noteworthy, just before the eruption of the war, Pericles and some of his closest associates, Phidias and his helpmate, Aspasia, confronted an orchestrated attack and faced serious accusations. Phidias was accused for defelcating gold and Aspasia for corrupting the women of Athens in order to satisfy Pericles' perversions. Both accusations were slandering, but the whole experience was very bitter of the Athenian politician. Although Aspasia was acquitted thanks to an emotional outburst of Pericles, his friend, Phidias, died in prison<ref>According to Plutarch</ref> and another friend of him, Anaxagoras, was attacked by the ecclesia for his religious believes.
Then, the ecclesia did not hesitate to attack personally Pericles by asking him to justify the public profligacy and, according to Plutarch, he was fined with 50 talents.
When the big war erupted, Pericles was not as powerful as he used to be and, consequently, Athens, as a whole, was more vulnerable.
The Peloponnesian War
Certain politicians and writers (including Plutarch) predicate that Pericles and the Atheneans incited the war<ref>Plutarch says that Pericles provoked the war, searching desperately an exit from the scandals he was involved. But Thucydides (I, 139) insists that the Athenian politician was remaining powerful. Gomme and Vlachos (Comments on Thucydides, page 141) support Thucydides' view.</ref>.Thucydides hints the same thing, although he admired his compatriot, but the great historian is, at this point, critisized for bias and exreme sympathy for Sparta<ref>For this subject see the excellenet survey of Angelos Vlachos, Thucydides' bias, page 60 etc </ref>.
The beginning of the war
Pericles was convinced that the war against Sparta, which was envy of Athens' preeminence, would be finally inevitable if not wellcomed. That's why, he did not hesitate to send troops to Corfu, which was fighting against Corinth<ref>Thucydides, I, 31-54 </ref>, a decision resulting in Corinth's petulance. When Sparta sent a deputation in Athens demanding outrageous concessions, the Athenians heard carefully Pericles' words. In the first legendary oration Thucydides puts in his mouth<ref>Thucydides, I, 140-144 </ref>, Pericles advised the Athenians not to yield to Sparta's demands, since they were militarily stronger, especially in terms of the naval force. His opinion was that endurance is the key for victory.
In 431 BC Archidamus, Sparta's king, invaded Attica, but no Athenians were found there, since Pericles had convinced his compatriots to leave their farms unprotected and squeeze themselves into the city. Nonetheless, seing the pillage, the Athenians got outraged and they started in some indirect ways to express their discontent towards their leader. In the eyes of many Athenians, Pericles drew them to war. The retirement of the ennemy calmed down the mob, but a year later public rage would erupt in a more vehement way.
During the autumn of 431 BC, Pericles invaded Megara and a few months later(winter of 431 BC-430 BC), he delivered his monumental and emotional Funeral Oration<ref>Thucydides, II, 35-46 </ref>, honoring the Athenians who died for their city.
Pericles' end
In 430 BC the army of Sparta luded again Attica, but Pericles kept the same stance, avoiding any military confrontation. In the summer of the same year the epidemic broke out and decimated Athenians. About the nature of the illness nobody can be sure, but, taking into consideration the symptoms of the disease, most researchers now believe that it was typhus and not cholera, plague or measles<ref>Gomme and Vlachos (Comments on Thucydides, page 177)</ref>. In any case, the epidemic provoked a new wave of discontent and Pericles felt the need to defend himself in his last speech exposed by Thucydides<ref>Thucydides, II, 60-64</ref>, another monumental oration, revealing Pericles' virtues but also his bitterness towards his compatriots' ingraditude. Temporarily, he managed to ease the discontent, but his ennemies within Athens (Sparta also loathed him) achieved to deprive him of the generalship and he was also fined<ref>Thucydides mentions only the fining</ref>.
Nevertheless, within just a year, in 429 BC the Athenians not only whitened him but they also reelected him as general<ref>Previously, Pericles held the generalship from 444 BC till 430 BC without inerruption</ref>. Without any doubt, he led all the military excursions in Athens in 429 BC<ref>See Encyclopedia "The Helios"</ref>. However, the death of his son, Paralus, hit by the epidemic, was a huge blow for Pericles. With his morale undermined, he burst into tears and not even Aspasia's companionship could console him. He legalised his second son, Pericles the younger (Athenians allowed a change in the law that made Pericles' non-Athenian son a citizen and legitimate heir), whose mother was Aspasia, but the epidemic was ruthless with Pericles. He died the autumn of 429 BC after being affected by the disease.
Pericles' personal life
Pericles was first married with one of his closest relatives, a peculiar Athenian custom, and he had with his wife two sons, Xanthippus and Paralus. Nevertheless, his marriage was not happy. As a result, Pericles got divorced (c. 445 BC) and offered his wife to another husband with the agreement of her male relatives<ref>See K. Paparrigopoulos, Aa, page 221</ref>. Unfortunately, we do not know the name of his first wife; the only information about her is that she was the wife of Ipponicus, before being married with Pericles, and mother of Callius from this first marriage<ref>Encyclopedia "The Helios"</ref>.
The woman he really adored was Aspasia, a hetaera, whose intellectual efficiencies astonished Pericles. She became his mistress and they began to live with him as if they were married. This relationship arose many reactions and even Pericles' own son, Xanthippus, who had political ambitions, did not hesitate to slander his father. Nonetheless, these immoral attacks did not undermine Pericles' morale, although he had to burst into tears in order to protect his beloved Aspasia, when she was accused for corrupting Athenian society. His greatest personal tragedy was the death of both his legal sons, Xanthippus and Paralus by the epidemic, a calamitouness he never managed to overcome.
Assessments
Pericles marked a whole era and arose conflicting judgments about his various and significant decisions, which is something normal for a political personality of his magnitude.
Pericles as a political leader
Was Pericles a populist and a demagogue or an inspired and charismatic leader? During his youth, when he confronted Cimon, he introduced policies, certain aspects of which could be deemed demagogic. Nonetheless, a few years later, as a leader, he adopted moderation and recalled Cimon for the sake of Athens, a characteristic exhibition of self-consciousness.
But the best hymn for Pericles is the famous paragraph of Thucydides <ref>Thucydides, II, 65</ref>and his legendary phrase that Athens was "in name a democracy but, in fact, governed by its first citizen". In one of his rare praises, austere Thucydides, an admirer of Pericles, illustrates Pericles' charisma to lead, convince and, sometimes, manipulate a fickle people like the Athenians. Although Thucydides mentions Pericles’ fining (II, 65) he forgets to expose the accusations against the politician <ref>Vlachos (Thucydides' bias, page 62) criticizes the historian for this omission </ref> and he underlines Pericles’ integrity. On the other hand, in one of his dialogues <ref>Plato, "Gorgias" </ref> Plato puts in Socrates' mouth the following comments: "As far as I know, Pericles made the Athenians slothfull, garrulous and avaricious, because he was the first who remunerated public wages". Hence, who’s really Pericles? The politician who paved the way for the populism of the incompetent politicians who succeeded him or the summa virtus of a politician, an insurmountable pattern, as Thucydides wants to present him?
In any case, the most flattering comment of Thucydides (II, 65) and the best answer against those criticizing him for demagogy is that Pericles "was not carried away by the people, but he was the one guiding the people", namely he was not manipulated by the mob, but he was the one manipulating the mob, an ability his successors lacked.
Pericles as a military leader
From about 450 BC until his death, namely for more than 20 years, Pericles led numerous expeditions, mainly naval expeditions. Nonetheless, his strategical genius remains questioned and a common criticism against him is that he always was a better politician and orator than strategist.
His tactics during the Peloponnesian War were also criticized. Many of his internal opponents advocated a more aggressive stance against Sparta and the pillage of Attica reinforced the voices of opposition. Was his passive stance right? Did the Athenians lose the war because of his initial choices? Basically, we must point out that Pericles' syllogism was more political than military. He was sure that in an age-long war the winner would be the one who would endure more and a prosperous city like Athens met all the requirements for achieving a triumph, if its leadership could remain calm, patient and focus. And, if he had lived longer, he would probably have attained his goals. The problem is that his successors lacked his genius, his composure and a clear vision. The only charismatic of his successors, Alcibiades, had a completely different plan in his mind and a dubious agenda.
Pericles as an orator
To whom belong Pericles’ orations? To him or to Thucydides? This is a question nobody can answer with certainty, since we know that Pericles never wrote down or distributed his orations<ref>Cicero speaks about Pericles' writings (Cic. Brut. VII 27, de orat. II 22,93), but his remarks do not seem credible. Most probably, other writers used his name</ref>; Thucydides recreated three of them<ref>Thucydides, I, 140-144, II, 35-46 and 60-64</ref> by his own memory and, that’s why, nobody can assure us that he didn’t add his own notions and thoughts. In any case, Pericles constitutes his inspiration and the main reason for enjoying nowadays these literary masterpieces, especially the Funeral Oration and his emotional last oration <ref>Thucydides, II 60-64</ref>.
Pericles avoided any gimmicks while orating, contrary to the passionate Demosthenes, and imposed himself with the plethora of his grandiose ideas, with his elegance and his incessant inspiration. The fact that he was quick-witted is proven by the way he confronted his political opponent, Thucydides, and achieved the immediate swing of the mob in his favor.
Legacy
Few people bequeathed to the next generations such a legacy; the monuments of Acropolis and the literary culmination of Thucydides are due to Pericles. He prompted the emancipation of this entire marvelous intellectual force of Athens and led the civilization of Athenians to the top of Olympus. Nowadays, we enjoy the rare achievements of a rare civilization led by a rare man, the great Pericles. Was he infallible? Of course he wasn’t, but no great man avoided terrible mistakes, even in the culmination of greatness.
Timeline
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at:495 text:495 BC - Pericles is born in Athens at:470 text:470 BC - Entering politics at:463 text:463 BC - Prosecuting Cimon at:461 text:461 BC - Assuming the leadership of the Democratic Party at:454 text:454 BC - his first military expedition in Sicyon and Acarnania at:451 text:451 BC - Ostracism of Cimon at:448 text:448 BC - Battle in Delphi at:445 text:445 BC - Ratification of the Thirty Years' Treaty at:444 text:444 BC - Ostracism of Thucydides from:444 till:430 text: from 444 BC till 430 BC Pericles is the unchallengable ruler of Athens at:440 text:440 BC - The Samian War at:438 text:438 BC - Besiege of Byzantium at:432 text:432 BC - Persecutions against Pericles, Aspasia, Phidias and Anaxagoras at:431 text:431 BC - Erruption of the Peloponnesian War - Pericles invades Megara at:430 text:430 BC - Pillage of Attica by the army of Sparta - Pericles not reelected general at:429 text:429 BC - Pericles leads the Athenian Army - Death of his son Paralus - Death of Pericles </timeline>
References
- E. Abbot, "Pericles and the Golden Age of Athens", 1898
- Aristotle, "Constitution of Athens"
- Aristotle, "Politika (Politics)"
- J. Beluch, "Die attische Politik seit Pericles" (in German)
- E. A. Gardner, Ancient Athens, 1902.
- Encyclopedia Britannica (2002), article: "Pericles"
- Encyclopedia 21st Century, Volume XXIII, article: ""Perivles"" (in Greek)
- Encyclopedic Dictionary "The Helios", Volume VIII, article: the funeral speech over the fallen, Volume XV, article: Pericles (in Greek)
- Ioannis Th. Kakridis, "Interpretative comments on the Pericles' Funeral Oration", Editions: Estia, 1993 (in Greek)
- Konstantinos Paparrigopoulos (-Pavlos Karolidis), “History of the Hellenic Nation”, Volume Ab, Editions: Eleftheroudakis, 1925 (in Greek)
- Plato, "Gorgias"
- Plutarch, "Pericles"
- Thucydides, "History of the Peloponnesian War", I, translated in Modern Greek by Angelos Vlachos, comments by Georgios Zikidis, Editions: Papadima, 1998.
- Thucydides, "History of the Peloponnesian War", II – III, translated in Modern Greek by Eleftherios Venizelos, Editions: Georgiadis, 2001.
- Angelos Vlachos, "Remarks on Thucydides" History of the Peloponnesian War (Α΄-Δ΄), Volume I, Editions: Estia, 1992 (in Greek)
- Angelos Vlachos, "Thucydides' bias", Editions: Estia, 1974 (in Greek)
- Xenophon, "The Constitution of Athens"
Footnotes
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