Ju/’hoan language

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Ju|’hoan (also called Zu|’hõasi, Dzu’oasi, Zû-|hoa, Ju/'Hoansi) is a Khoisan language spoken in the Northwest District of Botswana by about 5,000 people (as of 2002) and by perhaps a comparable number across the border in Namibia. It is a cluster of eastern dialects of the Ju dialect continuum that includes !Kung (!Xűű) and ‡Kx’au‖’ein. It is part of a Southern dialect cluster of the Ju languages according to Snyman (1997). Four varieties are distinguished: Epukiro, Tsumkwe, Rundu, and Omatako

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Phonetics

Ju/’hoan has four tones.

There are 5 vowel qualities, Template:IPA. However, these may be nasalized, glottalized, mumured, or combinations of these, and most of these possibilities occur both long and short. The qualities [a] and [o] may also be pharyngealized and strident. This produces a good 30 vowels, perhaps more, depending on one's analysis. There are in addition many vowel sequences and diphthongs.

Ju/’hoan has an unusually large number of consonants, as seen below, including clicks and clusters with mixed voicing. Phonemes in parentheses are only found in loan words. The complete set of clicks is found below.

non-click consonants		labial	alveolar	postalveolar /palatal	velar	corresponding alveolar click?	glottal
plosive	voiced	Template:IPA	Template:IPA		Template:IPA	Template:IPA
	tenuis	Template:IPA	Template:IPA		Template:IPA	Template:IPA
	aspirated	Template:IPA	Template:IPA		Template:IPA	Template:IPA
	cluster	Template:IPA	Template:IPA			Template:IPA
affricate	voiced		Template:IPA?	Template:IPA?		Template:IPA
	tenuis		Template:IPA	Template:IPA		Template:IPA
	ejective		Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA
	aspirate		Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA
	aspirated cluster		Template:IPA	Template:IPA
	ejective cluster		Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA
fricative	voiced	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA
fricative	voiceless	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA
nasal	voiced	Template:IPA	Template:IPA ~ Template:IPA			Template:IPA
	voiceless	Template:IPA				Template:IPA
	glottalized	Template:IPA			Template:IPA
other			Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA		Template:IPA

The phonemic status of Template:IPA and Template:IPA is uncertain. The only other non-click consonant clusters involve the velar fricative: Template:IPA. The click accompaniments seen in Template:IPA and Template:IPA also do not fit into the chart.

Ju/’hoan has 48 click sounds. Given the intricate clusters seen in the non-click consonants, it is not surprising that many of the Ju/’hoan clicks should be analyzed as clusters. However, although some are clearly simplex and others clearly complex, there is debate over others.

There are four click releases: dental, lateral, alveolar, and palatal. (Some Ju dialects have laminal vs apical lateral click releases, but Ju/’hoan is not among them.) There are twelve accompaniments, all of which are velar. These are perfectly normal consonants in Ju/’hoan, and indeed are preferred over non-clicks in word-initial position.

affricated clicks		'sharp' clicks		accompaniment
dental clicks	lateral clicks	alveolar clicks	palatal clicks	accompaniment
Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Tenuis
Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Voiced
Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Nasal
Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Aspirated
Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Voiceless nasal with delayed aspiration
Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Voiceless affricated
Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Voiced affricated
Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Affricated ejective (perhaps Template:IPA)
Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Voiced plosive followed by affricated ejective
Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Voiceless plosive followed by glottal stop
Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Voiced nasal followed by voiceless aspirated nasal
Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Template:IPA	Voiced plosive followed by aspiration (perhaps Template:IPA or Template:IPA)

Some analyses treat the first seven accompaniments as simplex, and the last five as clusters. The Template:IPA appears to correspond to the complex Template:IPA in other languages, but there is no evidence of a second stop in Ju/’hoan; indeed, the element following the click release varies from a voiceless fricative Template:IPA to a voiced fricative Template:IPA to an approximant Template:IPA. In ejective clicks like Template:IPA, the front articulation of the click is released first, and the glottalic mechanism for the ejective is only made when the back articulation is released. They are considered complex for the simple reason that ejectives and clicks involve two distinct airstream mechanisms made in sequence, rather as Template:IPA and Template:IPA involve a change in phonation or airstream mechanism partway through.

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Bibliography

Snyman, J.W. (1975) Zu|'hõasi Fonologie en Woordeboek. Cape Town: AA Balkema.
Snyman, J.W. (1983) 'Zu|'hõasi, a Khoisan Dialect of South West Africa/Namibia', in Dihoff, Ivan R. (ed.) Current Approaches to African Linguistics Vol 1, 115–125.
Snyman, J.W. (1997) 'A preliminary classification of the !Xűű and Zu|'hõasi Dialects', in Haacke, W.H.G. & Elderkin, E.D. (eds.) Namibian Languages: Reports and Papers. (Namibian African Studies, 4). Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 21–106.

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