Andrew Jackson

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Template:Infobox President Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845), was the first governor of Florida (1821), seventh President of the United States (1829-1837), hero of the Battle of New Orleans (1815), a founder of the Democratic Party, and the eponym of the era of Jacksonian democracy. He was a polarizing figure who helped shape the Second Party System of American politics in the 1820s and 1830s.

Nicknamed "Old Hickory," because he was known for his toughness, Jackson was the first President primarily associated with the American frontier (although born in South Carolina, he spent most of his life in Tennessee).

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Early life and military career

Jackson was born in a backwoods settlement to Scots-Irish immigrants in the Waxhaw area in the Carolinas, on March 15, 1767. He was the youngest of three brothers. Both North Carolina and South Carolina have claimed him as a "native son." Jackson himself always stated that he was born in South Carolina. He received a sporadic education. At age thirteen, he joined the Continental Army as a courier. He was captured and imprisoned by the British during the American Revolutionary War. Jackson was the last U.S. President to have been a veteran of the American Revolution, and the only President to have been a prisoner of war. The war took the lives of Jackson's entire immediate family.

Image:Andrew Jackson brave boy 1780.jpg During the Revolution, after the surrender to the British at Charleston, Andrew and his brother Robert Jackson were taken as prisoners, and nearly starved to death. When Andrew refused to clean the boots of a British officer, the irate redcoat slashed at him, giving him scars on his left hand and head, as well as an intense hatred for the British. Both of them contracted small pox while imprisoned, and Robert died days after their release. In addition, two of Jackson's brothers and his mother--his entire remaining family--died from war-time hardships that Jackson also blamed upon the British. This anglophobia would help to inspire a distrust and dislike of Eastern "aristocrats", whom Jackson felt were too inclined to favor and emulate their former colonial "masters". Jackson admired Napoleon Bonaparte, for his willingness to contest British military supremacy.

Jackson came to Tennessee by 1787, having barely read law, but finding that enough to become a young lawyer on the frontier. Since he was not from a distinguished family, he had to make his career by his own merits; and soon he began to prosper in the rough-and-tumble world of frontier law. Most of the actions grew out of disputed land-claims, or from assaults and battery. His courtroom demeanor was of his time. In 1795, he fought a duel with an opposing counsel over a courtroom argument. He was elected as Tennessee's first Congressman, upon its statehood in the late 1790s, and quickly became a U.S. Senator in 1797, but quit within a year. In 1798, he was appointed Judge on the Tennessee Supreme Court. [1]

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Creek War and War of 1812

Template:Main articles Jackson became a colonel in the Tennessee militia, which he had led since 1801, the beginning of his military career. In 1813, after a massacre of 400 men, women and children at Fort Mims (in what is now Alabama) by Northern Creek Band chieftain Peter McQueen, Jackson commanded in the campaign against the Northern Creek Indians of Alabama and Georgia, also known as the "Red Sticks". Creek leaders such as William Weatherford (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen, and Menawa, who had been allies of the British during the War of 1812, violently clashed with other chiefs of the Creek Nation over white encroachment on Creek lands, and the "civilizing" programs administered by U.S. Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins. In the Creek War, a theatre of the War of 1812, Jackson defeated the Red Stick Creeks at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, aided by allies from the Southern Creek Indian Band, who had requested Jackson's aid in putting down what they considered to be the "rebellious" Red Sticks, and some Cherokee Indians, who also sided with the Americans. Although 800 Northern Creek Band "Red Sticks" Indians were killed in the battle, Jackson spared Weatherford's life from any acts of vengeance. Sam Houston and David Crockett, later to become famous themselves in Texas, served under Jackson at this time. Following the victory, Jackson imposed the Treaty of Fort Jackson upon both his Northern Creek enemy and Southern Creek allies, wresting 20 million acres (81,000 km²) from all Creeks, for white settlement.

Jackson's service in the War of 1812 was conspicuous for its bravery and success. He was a strict officer, but was popular with his troops, and was said to have been "tough as old hickory" wood on the battlefield, which gave him his nickname. The war, and particularly his command at the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815, made his national reputation; and he advanced in rank to Major General. In the battle, Jackson's 6,000 militiamen behind barricades of cotton bales opposed 12,000 British regulars marching across an open field, led by General Edward Pakenham. The battle was a total American victory. The British had over 2,000 casualties to Jackson's 13 killed and 58 wounded or missing. [2]

Image:Bustofandrewjackson.jpg

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First Seminole War

Template:Main Jackson saw military service again in the First Seminole War, when he was ordered by President James Monroe in December 1817 [3] to lead a campaign in Georgia against the Seminole and Creek Indians, and to prevent Spanish Florida from becoming a "refuge for runaway slaves". It was later said that Jackson exceeded his orders in Florida actions, but Monroe and the public wanted Florida. Before going, Jackson wrote to Monroe, "Let it be signified to me through any channel (say Mr. John Rhea [a mutual confidant]) that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished." Monroe gave Jackson orders that were purposely ambiguous, sufficient for international denials.

Jackson's Tennessee volunteers were attacked by Seminoles, but this left their villages vulnerable, and Jackson burned them and their crops. In his investigation, he found letters that indicated that the Spanish and British were "secretly" assisting the Indians. Jackson believed that the United States would not be "secure" as long as Spain and Great Britain encouraged American Indians to fight, and argued that his actions were undertaken in "self-defense". Jackson captured Pensacola with little more than some warning shots, and deposed the Spanish governor. He captured, tried, and executed two British subjects who had been supplying and advising the Indians. Jackson's action also struck fear into the Seminole tribes, as word of his ruthlessness in battle spread.

This also created an international incident, and many in the Monroe administration called for Jackson to be censured. However, Jackson's actions were defended by his Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams. When the Spanish minister demanded a "suitable punishment" for Jackson, Adams wrote back "Spain must immediately [decide] either to place a force in Florida adequate at once to the protection of her territory, ... or cede to the United States a province, of which she retains nothing but the nominal possession, but which is, in fact, ... a post of annoyance to them." Adams used Jackson's conquest, and Spain's own "weaknesses", to convince the Spanish (in the Adams-Onís Treaty) to cede Florida to the United States. Jackson was subsequently territorial governor there.

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Election of 1824

Template:Main During his first run for the Presidency in 1824, Jackson received a plurality of both the popular and electoral votes. Since no candidate received a majority, the election was thrown into the House of Representatives, which chose John Quincy Adams instead. Jackson denounced it as a "corrupt bargain" because Henry Clay threw his votes to Adams, who then made Clay Secretary of State. Jackson later called for abolishing the Electoral College. Jackson's defeat burnished his political credentials, however; since many voters believed the "man of the people" had been robbed by the "corrupt aristocrats of the East".

Jackson had enemies. Albert Gallatin, who for a while in 1824 was a vice presidential candidate, saw Jackson as "an honest man and the idol of the worshippers of military glory, but from incapacity, military habits, and habitual disregard of laws and constitutional provisions, altogether unfit for the office." [Adams 599]

Thomas Jefferson in retirement said of Jackson in 1824:

"I feel much alarmed at the prospect of seeing General Jackson President. He is one of the most unfit men I know of for such a place. He has had very little respect for laws or constitutions, and is, in fact, an able military chief. His passions are terrible. When I was President of the Senate he was a Senator; and he could never speak on account of the rashness of his feelings. I have seen him attempt it repeatedly, and as often choke with rage. His passions are no doubt cooler now; he has been much tried since I knew him, but he is a dangerous man." <ref>Paul Leicester Ford, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson 10 vols. (New York, 1892-99), 10: 331.</ref>
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Election of 1828

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Presidency 1829-1837

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Spoils system

Jackson is accused of introducing the "spoils system", or "patronage", to American politics. The term "spoils system" was attributed to Senator William L. Marcy of New York, who was quoted as saying, "To the victor belong the spoils." Upon Jackson's election as President, a sizable number of federal officers found that they had suddenly been replaced by supporters and friends of Jackson. Jackson saw this system as promoting the growth of democracy, rewarding people who were involved in his party and thus encouraging others to get involved.

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Opposition to the National Bank

Template:Main Image:AJ~bank.JPG As president, Jackson worked to take away the federal charter of the Second Bank of the United States (it would continue to exist as a state bank). The original Bank of the United States had been introduced in 1791 by Alexander Hamilton, as a way of organizing the federal government's finances. This first Bank's charter lapsed in 1811. It was followed by the second Bank, authorized during James Madison's tenure in office in 1816 for a 20 year period, to "alleviate the economic problems caused by the War of 1812". Both Banks were instrumental in the growth of the U.S. economy; but Jackson opposed the concept on ideological grounds. In Jackson's opinion, the Bank needed to be abolished because:

  • it was unconstitutional
  • it concentrated an excessive amount of the nation's financial strength into one single institution
  • it exposed the government to control by "foreign interests"
  • it exercised too much control over members of the Congress
  • it favored Northeastern states over Southern and Western (now Mid-western) states
  • Jackson had a strong personal and political dislike for the Bank's president, Nicholas Biddle

Jackson followed Jefferson as a supporter of the ideal of an "agricultural republic", and felt the Bank improved the fortunes of an "elite circle" of commercial and industrial entrepreneurs, at the expense of farmers and laborers. After a titanic struggle, Jackson succeeded in destroying the Bank, by vetoing its 1832 re-charter by Congress, and by withdrawing U.S. funds in 1833. The Bank's money-lending functions were taken over by the legions of local and state banks that sprang up feeding an expansion of credit and speculation; the commercial progress of the nation's economy was noticeably dented.

The U.S. Senate censured Jackson on March 27, 1834 for his actions in defunding the Bank of the United States; the censure was later expunged when the Jacksonians had a majority in the Senate.

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Nullification crisis

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Another notable crisis during Jackson's period of office was the "nullification crisis", or "secession crisis", of 1828–1832, which merged issues of sectional strife with disagreements over trade tariffs. Critics alleged that high tariffs (the "Tariff of Abominations") on imports of common manufactured goods made in Europe made those goods more expensive than ones from the northern US, and raised the prices paid by planters in the southern US. Southern politicians thus had an argument, to the effect that tariffs benefitted northern industrialists at the expense of southern farmers.

The issue came to a head when Vice President John C. Calhoun, in the South Carolina Exposition and Protest of 1828, supported the claim of his home state, South Carolina, that it had the right to "nullify"—declare illegal—the tariff legislation of 1828, and more generally the right of a state to nullify laws which went against its interests. Although Jackson sympathized with the South in the tariff debate, he was also a strong supporter of a strong union, with considerable powers for the central government. Jackson attempted to face Calhoun down over the issue, which developed into a bitter rivalry between the two men. Particularly famous was an incident at the April 13, 1829 Jefferson Day dinner, involving after-dinner toasts. Jackson rose first and voice booming, and glaring at Calhoun, yelled out "Our federal Union: IT MUST BE PRESERVED!", a clear challenge to Calhoun. Calhoun glared at Jackson and yelled out, his voice trembling, but booming as well, "The Union: NEXT TO OUR LIBERTY, MOST DEAR!", an astonishingly quick-witted riposte.

In response to South Carolina's threat, Congress passed a "Force Bill" in 1833, and Jackson vowed to send troops to South Carolina in order to enforce the laws. In December 1832, he issued a resounding proclamation against the "nullifiers", stating: "I consider...the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed." South Carolina, the president declared, stood on "the brink of insurrection and treason," and he appealed to the people of the state to reassert their allegiance to that Union for which their ancestors had fought. Jackson also denied the right of secession: "The Constitution...forms a government not a league...To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States is not a nation."

The crisis was resolved in 1833 with a compromise settlement orchestrated by Whig politician Henry Clay and adopted by a South Carolina convention. The settlement substantially lowered the tariffs and hinted that the central government considered itself "weak" in dealing with determined opposition by an individual state. To enforce this view, the convention proudly but pointlessly declared the federal Force Bill nullified, even though the bill was only meaningful with respect to the tariff nullification. Thus, the South Carolina legislature both averted major conflict with the federal government, and reaffirmed Calhoun's beloved doctrine of nullification.

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Indian Removal

Image:Andrew Jackson Statue Nashville.jpg

Today, perhaps the most controversial aspect of Andrew Jackson's presidency was his policy regarding American Indians. Jackson was a leading advocate of a policy known as "Indian Removal", signing the Indian Removal Act into law in 1830. Contrary to popular misconception, the Removal Act did not order the removal of any American Indians; what it did was authorize the President to negotiate treaties to purchase tribal lands in the east in exchange for lands further west, outside of existing U.S. state borders. According to biographer Robert V. Remini, Jackson promoted this policy primarily for reasons of national security, seeing that Great Britain and Spain had recruited Native Americans within U.S. borders in previous wars with the United States. According to historian Anthony Wallace, Jackson never publically advocated removing American Indians by force. Instead, Jackson made the negotiation of treaties a priority: nearly seventy Indian treaties—many of them land sales—were ratified during his presidency, more than in any other administration.

The Removal Act was especially popular in the South, where population growth and the discovery of gold on Cherokee land had increased pressure on tribal lands. The state of Georgia became involved in a contentious jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokees, culminating in the 1832 Supreme Court decision (Worcester v. Georgia) that ruled that Georgia could not impose its laws upon Cherokee tribal lands. About this case, Jackson is often quoted as having said, "John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it!" Jackson probably never said this; the popular story that Jackson defied the Supreme Court in carrying out Indian Removal is untrue. In fact, Jackson had no clear legal right to intervene on behalf of the Cherokees in Georgia.

Instead, Jackson used the Georgia crisis to pressure Cherokee leaders to sign a removal treaty. A faction of Cherokees led by Jackson's old ally Major Ridge negotiated the Treaty of New Echota with Jackson's administration, a document of dubious legality which was rejected by most Cherokees. However, the terms of the treaty were strictly enforced by Jackson's successor, Martin Van Buren, which resulted in the deaths of thousands of Cherokees along the "Trail of Tears".

In all, more than 45,000 American Indians were relocated to the West during Jackson's administration. During this time, the administration purchased about 100 million acres (400,000 km²) of Indian land for about $68 million and 32 million acres (130,000 km²) of western land. Though the relocation process was generally popular with the American people at the time, it resulted in much suffering and death among American Indians. Jackson was criticized at the time for his role in these events, and the criticism has grown over the years. Robert Remini characterizes the Indian Removal era as "one of the unhappiest chapters in American history". <ref>Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars. (2001)</ref>

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Assassination attempt

Image:JacksonAssassinationAttempt.jpg On January 30, 1835 an unsuccessful assassination attempt against Jackson occurred in the United States Capital. This was the first assassination attempt made against an American President. As Jackson left a funeral, a man named Richard Lawrence approached Jackson and fired a pistol at point-blank range. The would-be assassin was thwarted as his pistol misfired. He immediately drew another pistol, which also misfired, at which point Jackson attacked him with his cane, subduing him. Lawrence was later found to be mentally ill and committed to an insane asylum.

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Major presidential acts

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Administration and Cabinet

Image:Andrew jackson head.gif

OFFICENAMETERM
PresidentAndrew Jackson1829–1837
Vice PresidentJohn C. Calhoun1829–1832
 Martin Van Buren1833–1837
Secretary of StateMartin Van Buren1829–1831
 Edward Livingston1831–1833
 Louis McLane1833–1834
 John Forsyth1834–1837
Secretary of the TreasurySamuel Ingham1829–1831
 Louis McLane1831–1833
 William Duane1833
 Roger B. Taney1833–1834
 Levi Woodbury1834–1837
Secretary of WarJohn H. Eaton1829–1831
 Lewis Cass1831–1836
Attorney GeneralJohn M. Berrien1829–1831
 Roger B. Taney1831–1833
 Benjamin F. Butler1833–1837
Postmaster GeneralWilliam T. Barry1829–1835
 Amos Kendall1835–1837
Secretary of the NavyJohn Branch1829–1831
 Levi Woodbury1831–1834
 Mahlon Dickerson1834–1837


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Supreme Court appointments

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Supreme Court cases during his presidency

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States admitted to the Union

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Family and personal life

Image:Andrew Jackson Portrait.jpg Image:Andrew Jackson-1844-2.jpg Jackson's wife, Rachel, died of a heart attack just 2 months prior to his taking office as President. She had supposedly divorced her first husband, Col. Lewis Robards; but there were "questions" about the legality of the divorce. Jackson deeply resented attacks on his wife's honor; he killed Charles Dickinson in a duel over a horse-racing debt and an insult to his wife on May 30, 1806. Jackson was also injured during the duel, shot in the ribs, and the bullet was so close to his heart that it could never be safely removed. At times he would cough up blood. It caused him considerable pain for the rest of his life. Jackson blamed John Quincy Adams for Rachel's death, because of the marital scandal being brought up in the election of 1828. He felt that this had hastened her death, and never forgave Adams.

Jackson had two adopted sons, Andrew Jackson Jr., the son of Rachel's brother Severn Donelson, and Lyncoya, a Creek Indian orphan adopted by Jackson after the Creek War. Lyncoya died in 1828 at age 16, probably from pneumonia or tuberculosis.

The Jacksons also acted as guardians for eight other children. John Samuel Donelson, Daniel Donelson, and Andrew Jackson Donelson were the sons of Rachel's brother Samuel Donelson who died in 1804. Andrew Jackson Hutchings was Rachel's orphaned grand nephew. Caroline Butler, Eliza Butler, Edward Butler, and Anthony Butler were the orphaned children of Edward Butler, a family friend. They came to live with Andrew and Rachel after the death of their father.

The widower Jackson invited Rachel's niece Emily Donelson to act as his White House hostess and unofficial First Lady. Emily was married to Andrew Jackson Donelson, who acted as Jackson's private secretary. The relationship between the President and Emily became strained during the Petticoat Affair, and the two became estranged for over a year. They eventually reconciled and she resumed her duties as White House hostess. Sarah Yorke Jackson, the wife of Andrew Jackson Jr., became co-hostess of the White House in 1834. It was the only time in history when two women simultaneously acted as unofficial First Lady. Sarah took over all hostess duties after Emily died in 1836.

Jackson remained influential in both national and state politics after retiring to "The Hermitage", his Nashville home, in 1837. Though a slave-holder, Jackson was a firm advocate of the federal union of the states, and declined to give any support to talk of secession.

Jackson was a lean figure standing at 6 feet, 1 inch (1.85 m) tall, and weighing between 130 and 140 pounds (64 kg) on average. Jackson also had an unruly shock of red hair, which had completely grayed by the time he became president at age 61, in 1829. He had a pair of penetrating deep blue eyes. Jackson was one of the more sickly presidents, suffering from chronic headaches, abdominal pains, and a hacking cough that often brought up blood and sometimes even made his whole body shake. After retiring to Nashville he enjoyed eight more years of retirement and died at the Hermitage on June 8, 1845 at the age of 78, of chronic tuberculosis, "dropsy" and heart failure. His last words were: "Oh, do not cry. Be good children, and we shall all meet in Heaven."

In his will, Jackson left his entire estate to his adopted son, Andrew Jackson Jr., except for specifically enumerated items that were left to various other friends and family members. Jackson left several slaves to his daughter-in-law, and grandchildren. Jackson left a sword to his grandson, with the injunction, "that he will always use it in defence of our glorious Union."

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Memorials and movies

Image:StLouisCathedralJacksonStatue.jpg

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Trivia

  • During Jackson's Administration, the U.S Government was, for the first and (as of 2006) only time, debt free.
  • During the 1828 election, his opponents referred to him as a "Jackass". Jackson liked the name and used the Jackass as a symbol for a while, but it died out. However, it later became the symbol for the Democratic Party. [4]
  • Andrew Jackson was the first president to be born in a log cabin.
  • Andrew Jackson got special mentions on the television series The West Wing. Chief of Staff Leo McGarry was fond of recollecting a tale about Jackson on Big Block of Cheese Day.
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See also

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Notes

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References

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Primary sources

  • Bassett John Spencer, ed. Correspondence of Andrew Jackson Vols. 1-6. (1926).
  • Smith Sam B., and Harriet Chappell Owsley, eds. Papers of Andrew Jackson . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, Vol. 1, 1980.
  • Moser Harold D., Sharon MacPherson, and Charles F. Bryan Jr., eds. The Papers of Andrew Jackson. Vols. 2-4. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988.
  • online speeches and presidential messages
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Secondary sources

  • Brands, H. W. Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times (2005), biography emphazizing military career
  • Brustein, Andrew. The Passions of Andrew Jackson. New York: Knopf, (2003).
  • Bugg Jr. James L. ed. Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality? (1952), excerpts from scholars
  • Gammon, Samuel Rhea. The Presidential Campaign of 1832 (1922)]
  • Hammond, Bray. Andrew Jackson's Battle with the "Money Power" (1958) ch 8, an excerpt from his Pulitzer-prize-winning Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War (1954).
  • Hofstatder, Richard. The American Political Tradition (1948), chapter on Jackson.
  • James, Marquis. The Life of Andrew Jackson New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1938. Combines two books: The Border Captain and Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President; winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Biography.
  • Latner Richard B. The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: White House Politics, 1820-1837 (1979), standard survey.
  • Ratner, Lorman A. Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture (1997)
  • Robert V. Remini, The Life of Andrew Jackson. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume biography, (1998)
    • Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821 (1977); Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832 (1981); Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845 (1984)
  • Remini Robert. The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery (1988)
  • Rowland, Dunbar. Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813-1815 (1926)
  • Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. The Age of Jackson. (1945). Winner of the Pulitzer Prize for History. history of ideas of the era
  • Taylor, George Rogers, ed. Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States (1949), excerpts from primary and secondary sources
  • Syrett, Harold C. Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition (1953)
  • Wallace, Anthony F.C. The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (1993)
  • Ward, John William. Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age (1962) how writers saw him
  • Wilentz, Sean. Andrew Jackson (2005) short biography, stressing Indian removal and slavery issues
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External links

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Inaugural addresses

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State of the Union addresses

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