Indigenous languages of the Americas

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Indigenous languages of the Americas (or Amerindian Languages) are spoken by indigenous peoples from the southern tip of South America to Alaska and Greenland, encompassing the land masses which constitute the Americas. These indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct language families as well as many language isolates and unclassified languages. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made by some linguists, but several of these have not been generally accepted.

Contents

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Background

Archeological and DNA evidence suggests that the Americas were peopled by migrants from Siberia about 17,000-10,000 years ago. A persistent minority believes instead that humans first spread through the Americas about 30,000 years ago. From Alaska, the descendants of the first migrants went on to people the rest of North and South America. The language or languages spoken by these early migrants, and the process by which the current diversity of indigenous languages in the Americas emerged, are a matter of speculation. Some evidence suggests that the ancestors of the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleut speakers arrived separately from Siberia some time after the earliest settlers.

Several indigenous languages of the Americas have developed their own writing systems, including the Mayan languages and Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs. These and many other indigenous languages later adapted the Roman alphabet or Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics. Aleut and Tlingit were first written by missionaries in the Cyrillic alphabet, and later in the Roman alphabet.

Subsequent to the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas in 1492, the Spanish, English, Portuguese, French, and Dutch languages were brought to the Americas by European settlers and administrators, and constitute the official languages of the independent states of the Americas, although Bolivia, Paraguay and Peru have one or more indigenous languages as an official language in addition to Spanish. Several indigenous creole languages developed in the Americas from European languages.

The attitudes of the most of the European colonizers and their successor states toward Native American languages ranged from benign neglect to active suppression. John Eliot of Massachusetts, however, translated the Bible into an Algonquian language usually called Massachusett or Natick (1661–63; the first Bible printed in North America) and Spanish missionaries preached to the natives in local languages. They actually spread Quechua beyond its original geographic area.

Indigenous languages vary greatly in the number of speakers, from Quechua, Aymara, Guarani, and Nahuatl with millions of active speakers to a number of languages with only a handful of elderly speakers. Most indigenous languages of the Americas are endangered, and many others are extinct, with no living native speakers.

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Language families & isolates by region

Notes:

  • Extinct languages or families are indicated by: (†).
  • The number of family members is indicated in parentheses (e.g. Arauan (9) means the Arauan family consists of nine languages).
  • Out of convenience, the following list of language families is divided in 3 sections based on political boundaries of countries. These sections correspond roughly with the geographic regions (North, Central, & South America) but are not equivalent. This division also does not cleanly delineate indigenous culture areas.
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South America

Although both North and Central America are very diverse areas, South America has a linguistic diversity rivalled by only a few other places in the world with approximately 350 languages still spoken and an estimated 1,500 languages at first European contact. The situation of language documentation and classification into genetic families is not as advanced as in North America (which is relatively well-studied in many areas). Kaufman (1994: 46) gives the following appraisal:

Since the mid 1950s, the amount of published material on SA [South America] has been gradually growing, but even so, the number of researchers is far smaller than the growing number of linguistic communities whose speech should be documented. Given the current employment opportunities, it is not likely that the number of specialists in SA Indian languages will increase fast enough to document most of the surviving SA languages before they go out of use, as most of them unavoidably will. More work languishes in personal files than is published, but this is a standard problem.
It is fair to say that SA and New Guinea are linguistically the poorest documented parts of the world. However, in the early 1960s fairly systematic efforts were launched in Papua New Guinea, and that area — much smaller than SA, to be sure — is in general much better documented than any part of indigenous SA of comparable size.

As a result, many relationships between languages and language families have not been determined and some of those relationships that have been proposed are on somewhat shaky ground.

The list of language families and isolates below is a rather conservative one based on Campbell (1997). Many of the proposed (and often speculative) groupings of families can be seen in Campbell (1997), Gordon (2005), Kaufman (1990, 1994), Key (1979), Loukotka (1968), and in the Language stock proposals section below.

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Families (south)

  1. Arauan (9) (a.k.a. Arahuan, Arawan) (†)
  2. Arutani-Sape (2) (a.k.a. Arutani-sapé)
  3. Aymaran (3) (a.k.a. Jaqi, Aru, Aymara, Jaqaru)
  4. Barbacoan (8)
  5. Bororoan
  6. Botocudoan (3) (a.k.a. Aimoré)
  7. Cahuapanan (2) (a.k.a. Jebero, Kawapánan)
  8. Cariban (29) (a.k.a. Caribe, Carib)
  9. Catacaoan (a.k.a. Katakáoan) (†)
  10. Chapacura-Wanham (9) (a.k.a. Chapacuran, Txapakúran)
  11. Charruan (a.k.a. Charrúan) (†)
  12. Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22)
  13. Chimuan (†)
  14. Chipaya-Uru languages (a.k.a. Uru-Chipaya)
  15. Choco (10) (a.k.a. Chocoan)
  16. Cholonan (†)
  17. Chon (2) (a.k.a. Patagonian)
  18. Guajiboan (4) (a.k.a. Wahívoan) (†)
  19. Guaicuruan (7) (a.k.a. Guaykuruan, Waikurúan)
  20. Harakmbut (2) (a.k.a. Tuyoneri)
  21. Huarpe (a.k.a. Warpe) (†)
  22. Jirajaran (3) (a.k.a. Hiraháran, Jirajarano, Jirajarana) (†)
  23. Jabutian
  24. Je (13) (a.k.a. Gê, Jêan, Gêan, Ye)
  25. Jivaroan (2) (a.k.a. Hívaro)
  26. Kamakanan (†)
  27. Karajá
  28. Katukinan (3) (a.k.a. Catuquinan)
  29. Maipurean (South America & Caribbean) (64) (a.k.a. Maipuran, Arawakan, Arahuacan)
  30. Mascoyan (5) (a.k.a. Maskóian, Mascoian)
  31. Matacoan (4) (a.k.a. Mataguayan)
  32. Maxakalían (3) (a.k.a. Mashakalían)
  33. Mosetenan (a.k.a. Mosetén)
  34. Muran (4) (a.k.a. Mura)
  35. Nambiquaran (5)
  36. Otomacoan (2) (†)
  37. Pano-Tacanan (33)
  38. Peba-Yaguan (2) (a.k.a. Yaguan, Yáwan, Peban) (†)
  39. Puinavean (8) (a.k.a. Makú)
  40. Purian (†)
  41. Quechuan (46)
  42. Salivan (2) (a.k.a. Sálivan, piaroa)
  43. Timotean (2) (†)
  44. Tiniguan (2) (a.k.a. Tiníwan, pamigua) (†)
  45. Tucanoan (15)
  46. Tupian (70)
  47. Witotoan (6) (a.k.a. Huitotoan, Bora-Witótoan)
  48. Yanomaman (4)
  49. Zamucoan (2)
  50. Zaparoan (3) (a.k.a. Záparo)
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Isolates or unclassified (south)

  1. Andaquí (a.k.a. Andaqui, Andakí) (†)
  2. Aguano (†)
  3. Ahuaqué (a.k.a. Auaké, Uruak, Awaké)
  4. Aikaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (a.k.a. Aikanã, Tubarão)
  5. Andoque (Colombia, Peru) (a.k.a. Andoke)
  6. Andoquero (†)
  7. Aushiri (a.k.a. Auxira)
  8. Baenan (Brazil: Bahia) (a.k.a. Baenán, Baenã) (†)
  9. Betoi (Columbia) (a.k.a. Betoy, Jirara) (†)
  10. Candoshi (a.k.a. Maina, Kandoshi)
  11. Canichana (Bolivia) (a.k.a. Canesi, Kanichana)
  12. Carabayo
  13. Cayubaba (Bolivia)
  14. Chiquitano
  15. Coeruna (Brazil) (†)
  16. Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador) (a.k.a. Kofán)
  17. Cueva
  18. Culle (Peru) (a.k.a. Culli, Linga, Kulyi)
  19. Cunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina) (a.k.a. Atacama, Atakama, Atacameño, Lipe, Kunsa) (†)
  20. Esmeraldeño (a.k.a. Esmeralda, Takame) (†)
  21. Fulnió
  22. Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão) (†)
  23. Gorgotoqui (Bolivia) (†)
  24. Guamo (Venezuela) (a.k.a. Wamo) (†)
  25. Guató
  26. Hoti (Venezuela) (a.k.a. Jotí, Hodi, Waruwaru)
  27. Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco) (†)
  28. Huarpe (Warpe)
  29. Huaorani (Ecuador, Peru) (a.k.a. Auca, Huaorani, Wao, Auka, Sabela, Waorani, Waodani)
  30. Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
  31. Itonama (Bolivia) (a.k.a. Saramo, Machoto)
  32. Jeikó (†)
  33. Kaimbe
  34. Kaliana (a.k.a. Caliana, Cariana, Sapé, Chirichano)
  35. Kamsá (Colombia) (a.k.a. Sibundoy, Coche, Camsá)
  36. Kapixaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (a.k.a. Kanoé, Kapishaná)
  37. Karirí (Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará) (†)
  38. Katembrí (†)
  39. Kawésqar (Kaweskar, Alacaluf, Qawasqar, Halawalip, Aksaná, Hekaine)
  40. Koihoma (Peru) (†)
  41. Koayá (Brazil: Rondônia) (†)
  42. Kukurá (Brazil: Mato Grosso) (†)
  43. Leco (Lapalapa, Leko)
  44. Lule (Argentina) (a.k.a. Tonocoté)
  45. Maku language (a.k.a. Macu)
  46. Malibú (a.k.a. Malibu)
  47. Mapudungu (a.k.a. Araucanian, Mapuche, Huillice)
  48. Matanawí (†)
  49. Mocana (Colombia: Tubará) (†)
  50. Mochita (†)
  51. Movima (Bolivia)
  52. Munichi (Peru) (a.k.a. Muniche)
  53. Mutú (a.k.a. Loco)
  54. Muzo (Colombia) (†)
  55. Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco) (†)
  56. Nonuya (Peru, Colombia)
  57. Ofayé
  58. Old Catío-Nutabe (Colombia) (†)
  59. Omurano (Peru) (a.k.a. Mayna, Mumurana, Numurana, Maina, Rimachu, Roamaina, Umurano) (†)
  60. Otí (Brazil: São Paulo) (†)
  61. Paez (a.k.a. Nasa, Nasa Yuwe, Paes, Paisa)
  62. Pakarara (†)
  63. Palta
  64. Panche (†)
  65. Pankararú (Brazil: Pernambuco) (†)
  66. Pantagora (†)
  67. Panzaleo (Ecuador) (a.k.a. Latacunga, Quito, Pansaleo)
  68. Patagón
  69. Pijao
  70. Puelche (a.k.a. Guenaken, Gennaken, Pampa, Pehuenche, Ranquelche) (†)
  71. Puquina (Bolivia) (†)
  72. Resígaro (Colombia-Peru border area)
  73. Rikbaktsá
  74. Sechura language (Atalan, Sec) (†)
  75. Salumã (Brazil)
  76. Tairona (Colombia) (†)
  77. Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte) (†)
  78. Taruma (†)
  79. Taushiro (Peru) (a.k.a. Pinchi, Pinche)
  80. Tequiraca (Peru) (a.k.a. Tekiraka, Avishiri) (†)
  81. Teushen (†) (Patagonia, Argentina)
  82. Ticuna (Colombia, Peru, Brazil) (a.k.a. Magta, Tikuna, Tucuna, Tukna, Tukuna)
  83. Trumai (Brazil: Xingu, Mato Grosso)
  84. Tuxá (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco) (†)
  85. Urarina (a.k.a. Shimacu, Itukale, Shimaku)
  86. Vilela
  87. Wakona (†)
  88. Warao (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela) (a.k.a. Guarao)
  89. Xokó (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco) (a.k.a. Shokó) (†)
  90. Xukurú (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba) (†)
  91. Yaghan (Chile) (a.k.a. Yámana)
  92. Yaruro (a.k.a. Jaruro)
  93. Yuracare (Bolivia)
  94. Yuri (Colombia, Brazil) (a.k.a. Carabayo, Jurí) (†)
  95. Yurumanguí (Colombia) (a.k.a. Yurimangui, Yurimangi) (†)
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Mexico and Central America

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Families (central)

  1. Algic (North America & Mexico) (29)
  2. Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22)
  3. Comecrudan (Texas & Mexico) (3)(†)
  4. Guaicurian (8) (a.k.a. Waikurian)
  5. Jicaquean
  6. Lencan
  7. Mayan (31)
  8. Misumalpan
  9. Mixe-Zoquean (19)
  10. Na-Dené (North America & Mexico) (40)
  11. Oto-Manguean (27)
  12. Tequistlatecan (3)
  13. Totonacan (2)
  14. Uto-Aztecan (North America & Mexico) (33)
  15. Xincan
  16. Yuman-Cochimí (North America & Mexico) (11)
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Isolates or unclassified (central)

  1. Alagüilac (Guatemala)
  2. Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico)
  3. Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  4. Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero)
  5. Huetar (Costa Rica)
  6. Huave (Mexico: Oaxaca)
  7. Maratino (northeastern Mexico)
  8. Naolan (Mexico: Tamaulipas)
  9. Quinigua (northeast Mexico)
  10. Seri (Mexico: Sonora)
  11. Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  12. Tarascan (Mexico: Michoacán) (a.k.a. Purépecha, Tarasco)
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Greenland, Canada & USA

Image:Langs N.Amer.png

There are approximately 296 spoken (or formerly spoken) indigenous languages north of Mexico, 269 of which are grouped into 29 families (the remaining 27 languages are either isolates or unclassified). The Nadene, Algic, and Uto-Aztecan families are the largest in terms of number of languages. Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (1.95 million) if the languages in Mexico are considered (mostly due to 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl); Nadene comes in second with approximately 180,200 speakers (148,500 of these are speakers of Navajo). Nadene and Algic have the widest geographic distributions: Algic currently spans from northeastern Canada across much of the continent down to northeastern Mexico (due to later migrations of the Kickapoo) with two outliers in California (Yurok and Wiyot); Nadene spans from Alaska and western Canada through Washington, Oregon, and California to the U.S. Southwest and northern Mexico (with one outlier in the Plains). Several families consist of only 2 or 3 languages. Demonstrating genetic relationships have proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity present in North America. Two large (super-)family proposals, Penutian and Hokan, look particularly promising. However, even after decades of research, a large number of families and isolates remain.

North America is notable for its linguistic diversity, especially in California where it alone has 18 genetic units consisting of 74 languages (compare to the mere 3 genetic units in all of Europe: Indo-European, Uralic, and Basque). Another area of considerable diversity appears to have been the Southeast; however, many of these languages became extinct from European contact and as a result they are, for the most part, absent from historical record. This diversity has been and continues to be very influential in the development of linguistic thought in the U.S.

Due to the diversity of this area, it is difficult to make generalizations that adequately characterize the entire region. Head-marking is found in many languages of North America (as well as in Central and South America), but outside of the Americas it is rare. The languages of the Pacific Northwest are notable for large consonant inventories and complex phonotactics (for example, some languages have words that lack vowels entirely). The languages of the Plateau area have relatively rare pharyngeals and epiglottals (they are otherwise restricted to Afro-Asiatic and Caucasian languages). Many languages throughout North America are polysynthetic (Eskimo-Aleut languages are extreme examples), although this is not characteristic of all North American languages (contrary to what was believed by 19th-century linguists). Several families have unique traits, such as the inverse number marking of Kiowa-Tanoan, the lexical affixes of Wakashan, Salishan and Chimakuan, and the unusual verb structure of Nadene.

The classification below is a composite of Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), and Mithun (1999).

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Families (north)

  1. Algic (30)
  2. Alsean (2)
  3. Caddoan (5)
  4. Chimakuan (2)
  5. Chinookan (3)
  6. Chumashan (6)
  7. Comecrudan (North America & Mexico) (3)
  8. Coosan (2)
  9. Eskimo-Aleut (7)
  10. Iroquoian (11)
  11. Kalapuyan (3)
  12. Keresan (2)
  13. Kiowa-Tanoan (7)
  14. Maiduan (4)
  15. Muskogean (9)
  16. Nadene (North America & Mexico) (39)
  17. Palaihnihan (2)
  18. Plateau Penutian (4) (a.k.a. Shahapwailutan)
  19. Pomoan (7)
  20. Salishan (23)
  21. Shastan (4)
  22. Siouan-Catawban (19)
  23. Tsimshianic (2)
  24. Utian (15)
  25. Uto-Aztecan (33)
  26. Wakashan (7)
  27. Wintuan (4)
  28. Yokutsan (3)
  29. Yuki-Wappo (2) disputed
  30. Yuman-Cochimí (11)
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Isolates or unclassified (north)

  1. Adai (US: Louisiana, Texas)
  2. Atakapa (US: Louisiana, Texas)
  3. Beothuk (Canada: Newfoundland)
  4. Cayuse (US: Oregon, Washington)
  5. Chimariko (US: California)
  6. Chitimacha (US: Louisiania)
  7. Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico)
  8. Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  9. Esselen (US: California)
  10. Haida (Canada: British Columbia; US: Alaska)
  11. Karankawa (US: Texas)
  12. Karuk (a.k.a. Karok) (US: California)
  13. Kutenai (Canada: British Columbia; US: Idaho, Montana)
  14. Natchez (US: Mississippi, Louisiana)
  15. Salinan (US: California)
  16. Siuslaw (US: Oregon)
  17. Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  18. Takelma (US: Oregon)
  19. Timucua (US: Florida, Georgia)
  20. Tonkawa (US: Texas)
  21. Tunica (US: Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas)
  22. Washo (US: California, Nevada)
  23. Yana (US: California)
  24. Yuchi (US: Georgia, Oklahoma)
  25. Zuni (a.k.a. Shiwi) (US: New Mexico)
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Language stock proposals

Many hypothetical language phylum proposals concerning American languages are often cited as uncontroversially demonstrated in more popular writings. However, many of these proposals have, in fact, not been fully demonstrated if even at all. Some proposals are viewed by specialists in a favorable light, believing that genetic relationships are very likely to be established in the future (e.g. the Penutian stock). Other proposals are more controversial with many linguists believing that some genetic relationships of a proposal may be demonstrated but much of it undemonstrated (e.g. Hokan, which, incidentally, Edward Sapir called his "wastepaper basket stock"). Still other proposals are almost unanimously rejected by specialists (e.g. Amerind). Below is a (partial) list of some such proposals:

  1. Ahuaque-Kalianan
  2. Algonkian-Gulf   (= Algic + Beothuk + Gulf)
  3. Almosan   (= Algic + Kutenai + Salishan + Wakashan + Chimakuan)
  4. Almosan-Keresiouan (= Almosan + Keresiouan)
  5. Amerind   (= all languages excepting Eskimo-Aleut & Nadene)
  6. (macro-)Arawakan
  7. Aztec-Tanoan   (= Uto-Aztecan + Kiowa-Tanoan)
  8. Chibchan stock
  9. Chibchan-Paezan
  10. Chikitano-Boróroan
  11. Coahuiltecan   (= Coahuilteco + Cotoname + Comecrudan + Karankawa + Tonkawa)
  12. Cunza-Kapixanan
  13. Dene-Caucasian
  14. Esmeralda-Yaruroan
  15. Guamo-Chapacuran
  16. Gulf   (= Muskogean + Natchez + Tunica)
  17. Hokan   (= Karok + Chimariko + Shastan + Palaihnihan + Yana + Pomoan + Washo + Esselen + Yuman-Cochimí + Salinan + Chumashan + Seri + Tequistlatecan)
  18. Hokan-Siouan   (= Hokan + Subtiaba-Tlappanec + Coahuiltecan + Yukian + Keresan + Tunican + Iroquoian + Caddoan + Siouan-Catawba + Yuchi + Natchez + Muskogean + Timucua)
  19. Javaroan-Cahuapanan
  20. Je-Tupi-Carib
  21. Kalianan
  22. Kaweskar language area
  23. Keresiouan   (= Keres + Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan + Yuchi)
  24. Lule-Vilelan
  25. Macro-Andean
  26. Macro-Arawakan
  27. Macro-Carib
  28. Macro-Gê (a.k.a. Macro-Jê)
  29. Macro-Katembrí-Taruma
  30. Macro-Kulyi-Cholónan
  31. Macro-Lekoan
  32. Macro-Mayan
  33. Macro-Otomákoan
  34. Macro-Paesan
  35. Macro-Panoan
  36. Macro-Puinávean
  37. Macro-Siouan   (= Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan)
  38. Macro-Tekiraka-Kanichana
  39. Macro-Tucanoan
  40. Macro-Tupí-Karibe
  41. Macro-Waikurúan
  42. Macro-Warpean
  43. Mosan   (= Salishan + Wakashan + Chimakuan)
  44. Mosetén-Chonan
  45. Mura-Matanawian
  46. (Sapir's) Nadene (including Haida)   (= Haida + Tlingit + Eyak + Athabaskan)
  47. Nostratic-Amerind
  48. Paezan (= Andaqui + Paez + Panzaleo)
  49. Paezan-Barbacoan
  50. Penutian   (= many languages of California and sometimes languages in Mexico)
    1. California Penutian   (= Wintuan + Maiduan + Yokutsan + Utian)
    2. Oregon Penutian   (= Takelma + Coosan + Siuslaw + Alsean)
    3. Mexican Penutian   (= Mixe-Zoque + Huave)
  51. Quechumaran
  52. Takelman   (= Takelma + Kalapuyan)
  53. Tunican   (= Tunica + Atakapa + Chitimacha)
  54. Yok-Utian   (= Yokutsan + Utian)
  55. Yuri-Ticunan
  56. Zaparoan-Yaguan

Good discussions of past proposals are found in Campbell (1997) and Campbell & Mithun (1979).

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Pidgins, mixed languages, & trade languages

  1. Labrador Eskimo Pidgin (a.k.a. Labrador Inuit Pidgin)
  2. Hudson Strait Pidgin
  3. Greenlandic Eskimo Pidgin
  4. Eskimo Trade Jargon (a.k.a. Herschel Island Eskimo Pidgin, Ship's Jargon)
  5. Mednyj Aleut (a.k.a. Copper Island Aleut, Medniy Aleut, CIA)
  6. Haida Jargon
  7. Chinook Jargon
  8. Nootka Jargon
  9. Broken Slavey (a.k.a. Slavey Jargon, Broken Slavé)
  10. Kutenai Jargon
  11. Loucheux Jargon (a.k.a. Jargon Loucheux)
  12. Inuktitut-English Pidgin
  13. Michif (a.k.a. French Cree, Métis, Metchif, Mitchif, Métchif)
  14. Bungee (a.k.a. Bungi) (?)
  15. Broken Oghibbeway (a.k.a. Broken Ojibwa)
  16. Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (a.k.a. Micmac-Basque Pidgin, Souriquois)
  17. Montagnais Pidgin Basque (a.k.a. Pidgin Basque-Montagnais)
  18. American Indian Pidgin English
  19. Delaware Jargon (a.k.a. Pidgin Delaware)
  20. Pidgin Massachusett
  21. Jargonized Powhatan
  22. Ocaneechi
  23. Lingua Franca Creek
  24. Lingua Franca Apalachee
  25. Mobilian Jargon (a.k.a. Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Chocaw Trade Language, Yamá)
  26. Güegüence-Nicarao
  27. Carib Pidgin (a.k.a. Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Ndjuka-Trio)
  28. Carib Pidgin-Arawak Mixed Language
  29. Guajiro-Spanish
  30. Media Lengua
  31. Catalangu
  32. Callahuaya (a.k.a. Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya, Collahuaya, Pohena, Kolyawaya jargon)
  33. Nheengatú (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Amazônica, Lingua Boa, Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)
  34. Lingua Geral do Sul (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Paulista, Tupí Austral)
  35. Plains Indian Sign Language
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Unattested languages

Several languages are only known by mention in historical documents or from only a few names or words. It cannot be determined that these languages actually existed or that the few recorded words are actually of known or unknown languages. Some may simply be from a historian's errors. Others are of known people with no linguistic record (sometimes due to lost records). A short list is below.

Loukotka (1968) reports the names of hundreds of languages which do not have any linguistic documentation.

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Linguistic areas

The languages of the Americas often can be grouped together into linguistic areas or Sprachbunds (also known as convergence areas). The linguistic areas identified so far deserve more research to determine their validity. Knowing about Sprachbunds help historical linguists differentiate between shared areal traits and true genetic relationship. The pioneering work on American areal linguistics was a dissertation by Joel Sherzer which was published as Sherzer (1976). The following tentative list of linguistic areas is based on primarily Campbell (1997):

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See also

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Bibliography

  • Adelaar, Willem F. H.; & Muysken, Pieter C. (2004). The languages of the Andes. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press.
  • Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
  • Boas, Franz. (1922). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
  • Boas, Franz. (1929). Classification of American Indian languages. Language, 5, 1-7.
  • Boas, Franz. (1933). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.
  • Bright, William. (1973). North American Indian language contact. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 1, pp. 713-726). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton.
  • Bright, William. (1984). The classification of North American and Meso-American Indian languages. In W. Bright (Ed.), American Indian linguistics and literature (pp. 3-29). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
  • Bright, William (Ed.). (1984). American Indian linguistics and literature. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-1100-9846-6.
  • Brinton, Daniel G. (1891). The American race. New York: D. C. Hodges.
  • Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  • Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-1604-8774-9.
  • Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institute). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6.
  • Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
  • Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13-67). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-2927-0414-3.
  • Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), Atlas of the world's languages (pp. 46-76). London: Routledge.
  • Key, Mary R. (1979). The grouping of South American languages. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.
  • Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: Latin American Studies Center, University of California.
  • Mason, J. Alden. (1950). The languages of South America. In J. Steward (Ed.), Handbook of South American Indians (Vol. 6, pp. 157-317). Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 143). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
  • Migliazza, Ernest C.; & Campbell, Lyle. (1988). Panorama general de las lenguas indígenas en América. Historia general de América (Vol. 10). Caracas: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia.
  • Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
  • Powell, John W. (1891). Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico. Seventh annual report, Bureau of American Ethnology (pp. 1-142). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. (Reprinted in P. Holder (Ed.), 1966, Introduction to Handbook of American Indian languages by Franz Boas and Indian linguistic families of America, north of Mexico, by J. W. Powell, Lincoln: University of Nebraska).
  • Powell, John W. (1915). Linguistic families of American Indians north of Mexico by J. W. Powell, revised by members of the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology. (Map). Bureau of American Ethnology miscellaneous publication (No. 11). Baltimore: Hoen.
  • Rodrigues, Aryon. (1986). Linguas brasileiras: Para o conhecimento das linguas indígenas. São Paulo: Edições Loyola.
  • Rowe, John H. (1954). Linguistics classification problems in South America. In M. B. Emeneau (Ed.), Papers from the symposium on American Indian linguistics (pp. 10-26). University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 10). Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Sapir, Edward. (1929). Central and North American languages. In The encyclopædia britannica: A new survey of universal knowledge (14 ed.) (Vol. 5, pp. 138-141). London: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Ltd.
  • Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). Linguistics in North America (parts 1 & 2). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976).
  • Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1976). Native languages of the Americas. New York: Plenum.
  • Sherzer, Joel. (1973). Areal linguistics in North America. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 2, pp. 749-795). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted in Sebeok 1976).
  • Sherzer, Joel. (1976). An areal-typological study of American Indian languages north of Mexico. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
  • Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978-present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1-20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1-3, 16, 18-20 not yet published).
  • Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1965). Classification of American Indian languages. Languages of the world, Native American fasc. 2, sec. 1.6). Anthropological Linguistics, 7 (7): 121-150.
  • Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1977). Classification and index of the world's languages. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-4440-0155-7.
  • Zededa, Ofelia; Hill, Jane H. (1991). The condition of Native American Languages in the United States. In R. H. Robins & E. M. Uhlenbeck (Eds.), Endangered languages (pp. 135-155). Oxford: Berg.
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External links

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