Korea

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Korea
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Image:Korean royal palace entrance.jpg
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Korea (한국, Hanguk, or 조선, Chosǒn) is a civilization and geographical area situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia, bordering China to the northwest and Russia to the northeast, with Japan situated to the southeast across the Korea Strait. It is often called the "Land of the Morning Calm".

One of the world's oldest civilizations, Korea has a recorded history dating back approximately 3,000 years. After unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea in 676 A.D, it was ruled by a single government and maintained political and cultural independence. Korea enjoyed a long period of relative peace, only punctuated by the Mongol invasions in the 13th century.

In 1905, Korea was occupied by Japan and remained a Japanese colony until the Empire of Japan's defeat in World War II. Following the end of the war, American and Soviet troops occupied Korea, beginning the division of the country into two political entities, South Korea and North Korea.

South Korea is a capitalist liberal democracy, and often referred to simply as "Korea". North Korea is a totalitarian Communist state that is sometimes described as Stalinist and isolationist.

Korea is populated by a relatively homogeneous ethnic group, the Koreans, who speak a distinct language called Korean and use the unique script hangul.

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Names of Korea

Image:Goguryeo tomb mural.jpg The common name "Korea" derives from the Goryeo period of Korean history, which in turn referred to the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo. It is now commonly used in English contexts by both North Korea (Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea) and South Korea (Republic of Korea).

In the Korean language, Korea as a whole is referred to as Hanguk (Template:Ko-hhrm) by South Korea and Chosŏn (Template:Ko-chmr) by North Korea. See also Korean romanization

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History

Image:Buryeongsa.jpg

There is archaeological evidence that people were living on the Korean Peninsula around 700,000 years ago, during the Lower Paleolithic.Template:Note The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 7000 BC, and the Neolithic period begins around 6000 BC. The Jeulmun Pottery Period spans from 3500 BC to 2000 BC.

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Gojoseon

Korea was founded in 2333 BC, according to the Dangun legend. This kingdom, known as Joseon, is usually called Gojoseon (meaning Old Joseon) distinguishing it from the modern Joseon Dynasty. Gojoseon cultural artifacts and walled cities are found throughout Korea and southern Manchuria. Archeological and contemporary written records indicate it likely developed from a federation of walled cities into a centralized state sometime between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, when it declared itself a kingdom and warred with northern Zhou dynasty kingdoms. In 108 BC, the Chinese Han dynasty defeated Gojoseon and installed four commanderies in northern Korea (including one near present-day Pyongyang) and Manchuria primarily as commercial outposts. Three of those commanderies fell to local resistance by 75 BC.

A state called Jin existed in southern Korea prior to Gojoseon's fall. Although very little is known about its political organization, bronze artifacts from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC have been uncovered in the region. Samhan, three loose confederacies that claimed descent from Jin, followed. In the north, the expanding Goguryeo united Buyeo, Okjeo, and Dongye in the former Gojoseon territory, and destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313 AD.

Image:Seokguram Buddha.JPG

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The Three Kingdoms

The three kingdoms Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje (the latter two arising from the Samhan) competed with each other as minor statelets fell or merged with these regional powers. Sophisticated state organizations developed under Confucian and Buddhist paradigms. Goguryeo was the most dominant power, but was at constant war with the Chinese Sui and Tang dynasties. Emperor Yang of Sui, with one million troops, invaded Goguryeo, but in 612 AD, General Eulji Mundeok pushed the Chinese forces into retreat. The unsuccessful war against Goguryeo contributed to the collapse of the Sui Dynasty afterwards.

Silla was the least culturally advanced of the Three Kingdoms, but had established a strong military centered around noble warriors called the Hwarang. Silla first annexed Gaya, then conquered Baekje and later Goguryeo with Tang assistance.

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Balhae and Unified Silla

Silla eventually repulsed Tang from most of Goguryeo territory. As a result, by the 8th century, Silla occupied most of the Korean peninsula and has been thus called Unified Silla. In the late 9th century, Unified Silla gave way to the brief Later Three Kingdoms period.

After the fall of Goguryeo, General Dae Joyeong led a group of his people to the Jilin area in Manchuria. The general founded the state of Balhae (Bohai in Chinese) as the successor to Goguryeo and regained control of lost northern territory. Eventually, Balhae's territory would extend from the Sungari and Amur Rivers in northern Manchuria down to the northern provinces of Korea. In the 10th century, Balhae was conquered by the Khitans. Image:Korean wedding.jpg

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Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392)

The kingdom of Goryeo replaced Silla. Many members of the Balhae ruling class joined the newly founded Goryeo, which established its boundaries to an area slightly larger than the Korean peninsula (See Gando region which is now occupied by the Chinese). During this period, laws were codified, a civil service system was introduced, and Buddhism flourished in Korea.

In the 10th and 11th centuries, Korea continued to be plagued by attacks from Jurchen and Khitan tribes on the northern borders. Conflict increased between civil and military officials as the latter were degraded and poorly paid. This led to an uprising by military and forced some military officials to migrate from the country.

In 1238, the Mongols invaded. After nearly thirty years of resistance, Korea was in ruins and the two kingdoms signed a treaty that favored the Mongols. Under Mongol direction, Goryeo participated in two failed attempts at invading Japan. In the 1340s, the Mongol Empire declined rapidly due to internal strife. Korea was at last able to forge political reform without Mongol interference. At this time, General Yi Seong-gye distinguished himself by repelling Japanese pirates, known as Wokou, who raided and stole from Korean and Chinese merchant ships as well as causing havoc to Korea's coasts. Image:Korean pagoda.jpg

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Joseon Dynasty (1392-1905)

In 1392, Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon Dynasty, moving the capital to Hanseong (now Seoul). During the first 200 years of the new dynasty, the northern territory was added, the area of cultivated land was doubled, science and technique state jumped up, new letters fitted for Korean language (hunminjeongeum) was established, many books were published for elementary education, and constitution and law were completed.

During the late 1590s, Japan invaded Korea in two failed attempts, known together as the Seven-Year War, causing great destruction. The invaders burnt down anything they could not take back to Japan and this is when major Korean cultural artifacts went missing. With the assistance of Ming Chinese troops and the ironclad warships of Admiral Yi Sunsin, Joseon forces were able to repel the Japanese.

After the invasion by Japan, however, in the 1620s and 1630s the Joseon Dynasty was not able to defend Korea from invasion by Manchu troops. It agreed to recognize the legitimacy of the new Qing Dynasty as rulers of China. Korea then enjoyed more than two centuries of peace. In fact, the country isolated itself from the outside world so much that it was often called the "Hermit Kingdom".

The Joseon Dynasty is believed to be the longest-lived actively ruling dynasty in East Asia.

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Japanese occupation

Beginning in the 1870s, Japan began to force Korea to move out of China's sphere of influence into its own. In 1895, Empress Min of Korea was murdered by the Japanese under Miura Goro's directive (Kim et al. 1976). After the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars, Japan gained dominance over Korea. In 1910, Japan forced Korea to sign the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty.

Japanese occupation was brutal and led many Koreans to resist, eventually leading to the independence movement in 1919. This movement was brutally suppressed and thousands were killed by occupation forces.

During World War II, many Koreans were forced to support the Japanese war effort. Tens of thousands men were conscripted into Japan's military, while up to 200,000 women were used as forced laborers and sex slaves, often called "comfort women". About 60,000 Koreans working under harsh conditions in Japanese mines are known to have died between 1939 and 1945.

Anti-Japanese sentiment still runs fairly strong in Korea, especially in older generations, as a result of what Koreans see as continuing unrepentant actions.

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Division

With the defeat of Japan in 1945, the Japanese colonial government was immediately replaced with American and Soviet presence. The Soviet Union supported the North Korean government, which was also associated with Communist China; the United States was closely allied to South Korea, helping Koreans with experience under the Japanese occupation to gain power and suppress Communists. Koreans faced bitter divisions: former collaborators were widely mistrusted and hated by Koreans, yet they possessed the most experience and remained in power. Communism began to take hold in Korea, and Koreans who had fought along with Communist China gained power and fame.

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Korean War and hopes for reunification

According to some political scientists, the Korean War resulted directly from the U.S. policy of Containment. The United States supported Korean nationalists who opposed Communism, funded and staffed the South Korean army, and influenced the United Nations to support the South Korean military (Cumings 1997). In 1945, in the aftermath of World War II, the United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration, the United States effectively began administering the peninsula south of the 38th parallel and the Soviet Union administering north. The politics of the Cold War resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate governments.

However, it is certain that North Korea invaded South Korea long after the US army left South Korea except for some advisers and when the South Korean government did not take the possibility of N. Korea's invasion seriously. The day when the war broke out was Sunday, and more than two thirds of the military forces were off duty in South Korea, and the North Korean army's campaign began at 4 AM.

The Korean War began in June 1950 and lasted until 1953. The North Korean army invaded the South without any notice or warning, prompting U.S. and then Chinese intervention. Millions of Koreans died, and the United States waged a bombing campaign over North Korea that effectively destroyed most cities: "There were simply 'no more cities in North Korea'" (Cumings 1997: 298). After three devastating years of fighting, the war ended in a ceasefire agreement at approximately the same boundary, though South Korea gained slightly more territory than it lost. This boundary was set as the demilitarized zone which constitutes the border between the two countries. The two countries never signed a peace treaty. Both Korean states proclaim eventual reunification as a goal, and a united Korea is very much a part of Korean ethno-cultural identity.

Since the 1990s, with progressively liberal South Korean administrations, as well as the death of North Korean founder Kim Il-sung, the two sides have taken halting, symbolic steps towards cooperation, in international sporting events, reunification of separated family members, economic matters, and tourism.

Recently, in effort to promote reconciliation, the two Koreas have adopted a single Unification Flag. While this flag may represent Korea at international sporting events, it is not the official flag of either North Korea or South Korea. Both states still officially retain the two separate national flags that they have used since their foundings in 1948.

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Geography

Korea is located on the Korean Peninsula in North-East Asia. It is bound by two countries and three seas. To the northwest, the Yalu River separates Korea from China and to the north, the Tumen River separates Korea from Russia. The Yellow Sea is to the west, the South China Sea is to the south, and the Sea of Japan (East Sea) is to the east of Korea. Notable islands include Jeju-do, Ulleung-do, and Dok-do.

The southern part and western part of the Korean mainland have well developed plains, while the eastern and northern parts are mountainous. The highest mountain in Korea is Mt. Baekdu (2744m, Changbaishan in chinese). The border with China runs through the mountain. The southern extension of Mt. Baekdu is a highland called Gaema Gowon. This highland was mainly raised during the Cenozoic orogeny and partly covered by volcanic matter. To the south of Gaema Gowon, successive high mountains are located along the eastern coast of the Korean Peninsula. This series of mountains is named Baekdudaegan. Some significant mountains include Sobaeksan (2,184 m), Baeksan (1,724 m), Geumgangsan (1,638 m), Seoraksan (1,708 m), Taebaeksan (1,567 m) and Jirisan (1,915 m). There are several lower, secondary mountain series whose direction is almost perpendicular to that of Baekdudaegan. They are developed along the tectonic line of Mesozoic orogeny and their directions are NW, NWW.

As opposed to the old mountains on the mainland, some important islands in Korea were formed by volcanic activity in the recent Cenozoic. Jeju-do, situated off the south coastline of the Korean Peninsula, is a large volcanic island whose main mountain is Mt. Halla (1950 m). Ulleung-do and the Dok-do are volcanic islands in the Sea of Japan, whose composition is more feslic than Jeju. The volcanic islands tend to be younger as one moves westward.

Because the mountainous regions are biased toward the eastern part of the peninsula, the main rivers tend to flow to westwards. Two exceptions are the southward-flowing Nakdong River and the Seomjin River. Important rivers running westward include the Yalu, Cheongcheon River, Daedong River, Han River, Geum River, and Yeongsan River. These rivers have vast flood plains and they provide an ideal environment for rice cultivation.

The southern and southwestern coastline of the Korean Peninsula is a well-developed Lias coastline. It is known as Dadohae in Korean. Its complicated coastline provides mild seas, and the resulting calm environment allows for safe navigation, fishing, and seaweed farming. In addition to the complex coastline, the western coast of the Korean peninsula has an extremely high tidal amplitude (at Incheon, around the middle of the western coast, it is as high as 9 m). Vast tidal flats are developing on the south and west coastline of the Korean Peninsula.

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Demographics

The Korean Peninsula is populated almost exclusively by ethnic Koreans, although a significant minority of ethnic Chinese (about 20,000 [1]) exists in South Korea, and small communities of ethnic Chinese and Japanese are said to exist in North Korea ([2]). Foreign workforce in South Korea is estimated at over half a million. The combined population (including North and South Korea) of the Korean Peninsula is about 73,000,000 people.

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Language

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Culture

Image:Korea south kangnung kyongpodae.jpg In ancient Chinese texts, Korea is referred to as "Rivers and Mountains Embroidered on Silk" (錦繡江山) and "Eastern Nation of Decorum" (東方禮儀之國). During the 7th and 8th centuries]], land and sea trading networks connected Korea to Arabia. As early as 845, Arab traders mentioned Korea saying, "Over the sea beyond China lies a mountainous country called 'Silla', rich in gold. Muslims who arrive there by accident are so attracted by its character that they stay there forever and do not want to leave."

According to Japanese records, Chinese knowledge and technology, including Chinese characters and the major classics, such as the Confucian Analects, were introduced to Japan by Korean scholars. In 554, the Korean kingdom of Baekje sent doctors, herb and calendar specialists, and diviners to Japan, and in 602, Kwalluk, a Baekje monk, was dispatched to Japan to deliver books on astronomy calendar-making, geography, and divination

Festivities showcase vibrant colors, which are attributed to Mongolian influences; bright red, yellow, and green often mark traditional Korean motifs [3]. Mongolian influence is also seen in the traditional dress called hanbok.

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Religion and education

Image:Goryeo Buddhist painting.jpg

Confucian tradition has dominated Korean thought, along with contributions by Buddhism, Taoism, and Korean Shamanism. Since the middle of the 20th century, however, Christianity has competed with Buddhism to be the dominant religious force in South Korea, while religion has been suppressed in North Korea.

According to 2003 statistics compiled by the South Korean government, about 46 % of citizens profess to follow no particular religion. Christians account for 27.3% of the population and Buddhists 25.3%.

Koreans valued scholarship and rewarded education and study of Chinese classic texts; Yangban boys were highly educated in Hanja. Until modern times, Koreans placed a lot of emphasis on hereditary status. Until the 10th century, a man's "bone rank" (determined by the rank of his father and his mother) defined his social status and what government post he would be appointed to. From the 10th century through to the end of the 19th century, the social status of a man's father and mother determined which civil service examination, if any, he could take but did not guarantee him a post.

South Korea was the first country in the world to provide high-speed internet access to every primary, junior, and high school. [4]

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Cuisine

Korean cuisine is probably best known for kimchi, which uses a distinctive fermentation process of preserving vegetables. Chili peppers are also commonly used, which has given it a reputation for being spicy. Bulgogi (roasted marinated beef or pork), galbi (rib), and samgyeopsal (pork fatback) are popular meat entrees. Koreans meals are accompanied by a soup or stew, often made with dwenjang bean paste.

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Sports

South Korea hosted the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, giving the country an economic boost through increased tourism and greater world recognition. At the time, North Korea boycotted the event on the grounds that it was not made co-host. Image:Korea unified flag.png A unified Korean team competed under the Unification Flag in 1991 in both the 41st World Table Tennis Championship in Chiba, Japan and in the 6th World Youth Soccer Championship in Lisbon, Portugal. A unified Korean team marched under the Unification Flag in the opening ceremonies of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the 2002 Asian Games in Busan, the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, and the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin but competed separately in sporting events. As of the 2006 Asian Games, South Korean officials have announced that the countries shall compete in the same unified sporting teams as well.

In the summer of 2002, the 2002 FIFA World Cup was hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan with 10 stadiums in each country. The two Koreas competed separately, however. There were suggestions that North Korea should host at least one or two matches, but nothing of the sort came to pass. While South Korea qualified automatically as co-hosts and even made it to the semi-finals (placing 4th in the end, losing to Turkey), North Korea failed to progress from the Asian Football Confederation regional qualifiers and missed the event.

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Science and technology

Image:Cheomseongdae.jpg One of the best known artifacts of Korea's history of science and technology is Cheomseongdae, a 9-meter high observatory built in 633. It served as one of the world's oldest astronomical observatories.

The world's earliest known printed document is a Buddhist scripture printed in Korea in 750-751 CE. The world's first metal movable type was invented in Korea in 1232, before Johann Gutenberg developed metal letterset type (Cumings 1997: 65). Though Koreans used wooden printing blocks by 751, this was a significant development in printing allowing continued use of the same type. Hangul, one of the world's most scientifically phonetic written scripts, was created by King Sejong in 1443. One of the world's first automated water clocks was invented in 1434 by Chang Yong-sil, who later developed an even more complicated water-clock with additional astronomical devices, water gauge, and the rain gauge.

During the Joseon period, Korean silk was highly regarded by China and Korean pottery made with blue-green celadon was highly valued in Japan. Chinese thought Korean porcelains were of high quality, but this interest lived on only until the Koryo Dynasty. In this period, Korea advanced traditional arts and crafts, such as white celadon glazes, fine silk, and paper. Also, during this time, the world's first ironclad warships, the Geobukseon (or "Turtle ship") were invented.

However, stagnation set in and Korea fell behind the West, especially in arms technology.

Today, South Korea leads the world in per-capita high-speed Internet connections. South Korea is also a major producer of high technology products such as mobile phones and plasma screens. North Korea continues to use mostly outdated technology from the 1960s and 1970s. South Korea is also just second in leading the world in adopting new consumer technologies, right behind Taiwan [http://www.parksassociates.com/press/press_releases/2005/gdl6.html1.

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References

  • Cumings, Bruce. Korea's Place in the Sun, Norton, 1997. ISBN 0-393-31681-5
  • Kim, et al. Women of Korea: A History from Ancient Times to 1945, Ewha Womans University Press, 1976. ISBN 89-7300-1167.
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Further readings

  • Chun, Tuk Chu. "Korea in the Pacific Community." Social Education 52 (March 1988), 182. EJ 368 177.
  • Cumings, Bruce. The Two Koreas. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1984.
  • Focus On Asian Studies. Special Issue: "Korea: A Teacher's Guide." No. 1, Fall 1986.
  • Lee Ki-baik. A New History Of Korea. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1984.
  • Lee Sang-sup. "The Arts and Literature of Korea." The Social Studies 79 (July-August 1988): 153-60. EJ 376 894.
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See also

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External links

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