Athabaskan languages

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This article is about the Native American language family. For any of the ships called "HMCS Athabaskan" see the disambiguation page HMCS Athabaskan.

Image:Na-Dene langs.png

Athabaskan or Athabascan (also Athapascan or Athapaskan) is the name of a large group of distantly related Native American peoples, also known as the Athabasca Indians or Athapaskes, located in two main Southern and Northern groups in western North America, and of their language family. The Athabaskan family is the largest family in North America in terms of number of languages and the number of speakers (the Uto-Aztecan family which extends into Mexico has many more speakers). In terms of territory, only the Algic language family covers a larger area.

The word Athabaskan is an anglicized version of the Cree name for Lake Athabasca in Canada.

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Languages

The 31 Northern Athabaskan languages are spoken throughout the interior of Alaska and the interior of northwestern Canada in the Yukon and Northwest Territories as well as in the provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Several Athabaskan languages are official languages in the Northwest Territories, including Dene Suline, Dogrib or Tlicho, Gwich'in, and Slavey.

The seven Pacific Coastal Athabaskan languages are spoken in southern Oregon and northern California. Isolated from the northern and coastal languages, the six Southern Athabaskan languages, including the different Apache peoples and Navajo, are spoken in the American Southwest and the northwestern part of Mexico.

Eyak and Athabaskan together form a genetic grouping called Athabaskan-Eyak. Tlingit is distantly related to this group to form the Na-Dené stock (a.k.a. Athabaskan-Eyak-Tlingit).

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Family division

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Overview

The Athabaskan language family has three main geographic groupings: Northern, Pacific Coast, and Southern. There is discussion of whether the Pacific Coast languages actually forms a valid genetic grouping. The Northern group is particularly problematic. Due to the failure of the usual criteria of shared innovation and systematic phonetic correspondences to provide well-defined subgroupings, the Athabaskan family (especially the Northern languages) has been called a "cohesive complex" by Michael Krauss (1973, 1982). Therefore, the Stammbaumtheorie model (family tree) of genetic classification may be inappropriate. The languages of the Southern branch are much more homogeneous and are the only clearly genetic subgrouping.

Below is an outline of the family showing only the major branches of the family. This outline follows mostly the classification of Keren Rice as seen in Goddard (1996) and Mithun (1999).

  1. Southern Alaska
  2. Central Alaska-Yukon
  3. Northwestern Canada
  4. Tsetsaut
  5. Central British Columbia
  6. Sarsi
  7. Kwalhioqua-Tlatskanai
  8. Pacific Coast Athabaskan
  9. Apachean

Branches 1-7 are the Northern Athabaskan (areal) grouping. Kwalhioqua-Tlatskanai (#7) has often been considered part of the Pacific Coast grouping, but a recent consideration by Krauss does not find it very similar to these languages.

A different classification by Jeff Leer is the following (Tuttle & Hargus 2004:72-74):

  1. Alaskan (Ahtna, Dena’ina, Deg Hit’an, Koyukon, Kolchan, Lower Tanana, Tanacross, Upper Tanana, Gwich’in, Han)
  2. Yukon (Tsetsaut, N. Tutchone, S. Tutchone, Tagish, Tahltan, Kaska, Sekani, Dunneza)
  3. British Columbia (Babine-Witsuwit’en, Dakelh, Chilcotin)
  4. Eastern (Dene Suline, Slavey, Dogrib)
  5. Southernly (Tsuut’ina, Apachean, Pacific Coast Athabaskan)

At this time, the details of the Athabaskan family tree should be regarded as tentative.

For detailed lists including languages, dialects, and subdialects, see the respective articles on the 3 major groups (i.e., Northern Athabaskan, Pacific Coast Athabaskan, Southern Athabaskan).

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Northern Athabaskan

  • Southern Alaskan subgroup
1. Ahtna
2. Dena’ina (a.k.a. Tanaina)
  • Central Alaska – Yukon subgroup
3. Deg Hit'an (a.k.a. Ingalik, Deg Xinag)
4. Holikachuk (a.k.a. Innoko)
5. Koyukon
6. Kolchan (a.k.a. Upper Kushokwin)
7. Lower Tanana
8. Tanacross
9. Upper Tanana
10. Southern Tutchone
11. Northern Tutchone
12. Gwich’in (a.k.a. Kutchin)
13. Hän (a.k.a. Han)
  • Northwestern Canada subgroup
A. Tahltan-Tagish-Kaska
14. Tagish
15. Tahltan
16. Kaska
17. Sekani
18. Dunneza (a.k.a. Beaver)
B. Slave-Hare
19. Slavey (a.k.a. Slave)
20. Mountain
21. Bearlake
22. Hare
23. Dogrib
24. Dene Suline (a.k.a. Chipewyan, Dëne Sųłiné, Dene Soun’liné)
  • Tsetsaut subgroup
25. Tsetsaut
  • Central British Columbia subgroup
26. Babine (a.k.a. North Carrier)
27. Dakelh (a.k.a. Carrier)
28. Chilcotin (a.k.a. Tsilhqot’in)
29. Nicola (a.k.a. Stuwix)
  • Sarsi subgroup
30. Tsuut’ina (a.k.a. Sarcee, Sarsi, Tsuu T’ina)
  • Kwalhioqua-Clatskanie subgroup
31. Kwalhioqua-Clatskanie (a.k.a. Kwalhioqua-Tlatskanie)
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Pacific Coast Athabaskan

  • California Athabaskan subgroup
32. Hupa (a.k.a. Hoopa-Chilula)
33. Mattole-Bear River
34. Eel River
  • Oregon Athabaskan subgroup
35. Upper Umpqua
36. Rogue River (a.k.a. Tututni)
37. Galice-Applegate
38. Tolowa
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Southern Athabaskan (a.k.a. Apachean)

  • Plains Apache subgroup
39. Plains Apache (a.k.a. Kiowa-Apache)
  • Western Apachean subgroup
A. Chiricahua-Mescalero
40. Chiricahua
41. Mescalero
42. Navajo (a.k.a. Navaho)
43. Western Apache (a.k.a. Coyotero Apache)
  • Eastern Apachean subgroup
44. Jicarilla
45. Lipan
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Areal list

Below is a list of all of the Athabaskan languages and their geographic locations.

  • Alaska: Ahtna, Deg Hit’an, Dena’ina, Gwich’in, Hän, Holikachuk, Kolchan, Koyukon, Lower Tanana, Tanacross, Tsetsaut, Upper Tanana
  • Yukon Territory: Gwich'in, Hän, Kaska, Mountain, Tagish, Tutchone, Upper Tanana
  • Northwest Territories: Bearlake, Dene Suline, Dogrib, Gwich’in, Hare, Mountain, Slavey
  • Nunavut: Dene Suline
  • British Columbia: Babine, Bearlake, Beaver, Chilcotin, Dakelh, Hare, Kaska, Mountain, Nicola, Sekani, Slavey, Tagish, Tahltan, Tsetsaut
  • Alberta: Beaver, Dene Suline, Slavey, Tsuut’ina
  • Saskatchewan: Dene Suline
  • Washington: Chilcotin, Kwalhioqua-Clatskanie (Willapa, Suwal), Nicola
  • Oregon: Applegate, Clatskanie, Galice, Rogue River (Chasta Costa, Euchre Creek, Tututni, Upper Coquille), Tolowa, Upper Umpqua
  • Northern California: Eel River, Hupa, Mattole-Bear River, Tolowa
  • Utah: Navajo
  • Colorado: Jicarilla, Navajo
  • Arizona: Chiricahua, Navajo, Western Apache
  • New Mexico: Chiricahua, Mescalero, Jicarilla, Lipan, Navajo
  • Texas: Mescalero, Lipan
  • Oklahoma: Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Plains Apache
  • Northwestern Mexico: Chiricahua
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Proto-Athabaskan

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Phonology

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A recent reconstruction of proto-Athabaskan consists of 40 consonants (Cook 1981; Krauss & Golla 1981; Krauss & Leer 1981; Cook & Rice 1989), as detailed below:

Obstruents
  Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
central lateral plain labial plain labial
Stop unaspirated   t       k q qʷ  
aspirated   tʰ       kʰ qʰ qʷʰ  
glottalized   t’       k’ q’ q’ʷ ʔ
Affricate unaspirated   ʦ tɬ ʧ ʧʷ        
aspirated   ʦʰ tɬʰ ʧʰ ʧʷʰ        
glottalized   ʦ’ tɬ’ ʧ’ ʧ’ʷ        
Fricative voiceless   s ɬ ʃ ʃʷ x χ χʷ h
voiced   z ɮ ʒ ʒʷ ɣ ʁ ʁʷ  
Sonorants
Nasal m n   ɲ          
Approximant       j       w  
Vowel
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External links

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Bibliography

  • Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  • Cook, Eung-Do. (1981). Athabaskan linguistics: Proto-Athapaskan phonology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 10, 253–273.
  • Cook, Eung-Do. (1992). Athabaskan languages. In W. Bright (Eds.), International encyclopedia of linguistics (pp. 122–128). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1950-5196-3.
  • Cook, Eung-Do; & Rice, Keren. (1989). Introduction. In E.-D. Cook & K. Rice (Eds.), Athapaskan linguistics: Current perspectives on a language family (pp. 1–61). rends in linguistics, State-of-the-art reports (No. 15). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 0-8992-5282-6.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1938). The southern Athapaskan languages. American Anthropologist, 40 (1), 75–87.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1956). The Chronology of the Athapaskan languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 22 (4), 219–232.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1963). The Athapaskan languages. In H. Hoijer (Ed.), Studies in the Athapaskan languages (pp. 1–29). Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Hoijer, Harry (Ed.). (1963). Studies in the Athapaskan languages. University of California publications in linguistics (No. 29). Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1971). The position of the Apachean languages in the Athpaskan stock. In K. H. Basso & M. E. Opler (Eds.), Apachean culture history and ethnology (pp. 3–6). Anthropological papers of the University of Arizona (No. 21). Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
  • Hymes, Dell H. (1957). A note on Athapaskan glottochronology. International Journal of American Linguistics, 23 (4), 291–297.
  • Krauss, Michael E. (1964). The proto-Athapaskan-Eyak and the problem of Na-Dene, I: The phonology. International Journal of American Linguistics, 30 (2), 118–131.
  • Krauss, Michael E. (1965). The proto-Athapaskan-Eyak and the problem of Na-Dene, II: The morphology. International Journal of American Linguistics, 31 (1), 18–28.
  • Krauss, Michael E. (1968). Noun-classification systems in the Athapaskan, Eyak, Tlingit and Haida verbs. International Journal of American Linguistics, 34 (3), 194–203.
  • Krauss, Michael E. (1969). On the classification in the Athapascan, Eyak, and the Tlingit verb. Baltimore: Waverly Press, Indiana University.
  • Krauss, Michael E. (1973). Na-Dene. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (pp. 903–978). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hague: Mouton. (Reprinted as Krauss 1976).
  • Krauss, Michael E. (1976). Na-Dene. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Native languages of the Americas (pp. 283–358). New York: Plenum. (Reprint of Krauss 1973).
  • Krauss, Michael E. (1979). Na-Dene and Eskimo. In L. Campbell & M. Mithun (Eds.), The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • Krauss, Michael E. (1980). On the history and use comparative Athapaskan linguistics. Fairbanks, AL: University of Alaska, Native Language Center.
  • Krauss, Michael E. (1986). Edward Sapir and Athabaskan linguistics. In W. Cowan, M. Foster, & K. Koerner (Eds.), New perspectives in language, culture, and personality (pp. 147–190). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
  • Krauss, Michael E.; & Golla, Victor. (1981). Northern Athapaskan languages. In J. Helm (Ed.), Subarctic (pp. 67–85). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 6). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
  • Krauss, Michael E.; & Leer, Jeff. (1981). Athabaskan, Eyak, and Tlingit sonorants. Alaska Native Language Center research papers (No. 5). Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska, Alaska Native Language Center.
  • Leer, Jeff. (1979). Proto-Athabaskan verb stem variation I: Phonology. Alaska Native Language Center research papers (No. 1). Fairbanks, AK: Alaska Native Language Center.
  • Leer, Jeff. (1982). Navajo and comparative Athabaskan stem list. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska, Alaska Native Language Center.
  • Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
  • Rice, Keren. (200). Morpheme order and semantic scope: Word formation in the Athapaskan verb. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Sapir, Edward. (1915). The Na-Dene languages, a preliminary report. American Anthropologist, 17 (3), 534–558.
  • Sapir, Edward. (1916). Time perspective in aboriginal American culture: A study in method. Anthropology series (No. 13), memoirs of the Canadian Geological Survey 90. Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau.
  • Sapir, Edward. (1931). The concept of phonetic law as tested in primitive languages by Leonard Bloomfield. In S. A. Rice (Ed.), Methods in social science: A case book (pp. 297–306). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Sapir, Edward. (1936). Linguistic evidence suggestive of the northern origin of the Navaho. American Anthropologist, 38 (2), 224–235.
  • Saville-Troike, Muriel. (1985). On variable data and phonetic law: A case from Sapir's Athabaskan correspondences. International Journal of American Linguistics, 51 (4), 572–574.
  • Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1-20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).an:Luengas atapascas

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