Martian canals

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Image:Karte Mars Schiaparelli MKL1888.png For a time in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was believed that there were canals on Mars.

These were a network of long straight lines that appeared in drawings of the planet Mars in the equatorial regions from 60° N. to 60° S. Lat., first observed by the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli during the opposition of 1877, and confirmed by later observers. Schiaparelli called these canali, which was translated into English as "canals". The Irish astronomer Charles E. Burton made some of the earliest drawings of straight-line features on Mars, although his drawings did not match Schiaparelli's.

Some people went so far as to propose the idea that the canals were irrigation canals built by a supposed intelligent civilization on Mars. Percival Lowell was a strong proponent of this view, pushing the idea much further than Schiaparelli, who for his part considered much of the detail on Lowell's drawings to be imaginary. Some observers drew maps in which dozens if not hundreds of canals were shown with an elaborate nomenclature for all of them. Some observers saw a phenomenon they called "gemination", or doubling — two parallel canals.

During the favourable opposition of 1892, W. H. Pickering observed numerous small circular black spots occurring at every intersection or starting-point of the "canals". Many of these had been seen by Schiaparelli as larger dark patches, and were termed seas or lakes; but Pickering's observatory was at Arequipa, Peru, about 2400 meters above the sea, and with such atmospheric conditions as were, in his opinion, equal to a doubling of telescopic aperture. They were soon detected by other observers, especially by Lowell.

During the oppositions of 1892 and 1894, seasonal color changes were reported. As the polar snows melted the adjacent seas appeared to overflow and spread out as far as the tropics, and were often seen to assume a distinctly green colour. The idea that Schiaparelli's canali were really irrigation canals made by intelligent beings, was first hinted at, and then adopted as the only intelligible explanation, by Lowell and a few others. This at once seized upon the public imagination and was spread by newspapers and magazines over the civilised world.

At this time (1894) it began to be doubted whether there were any seas at all on Mars. Under the best conditions, these supposed 'seas' were seen to lose all trace of uniformity, their appearance being that of a mountainous country, broken by ridges, rifts, and canyons, seen from a great elevation. These doubts soon became certainties, and it is now almost universally admitted that Mars possesses no permanent bodies of water.

Other observers disputed the notion of canals as well. The gifted observer E. E. Barnard did not see them. In 1903, J. E. Evans and Edward Maunder conducted visual experiments using schoolboy volunteers that demonstrated how the canals could arise as an optical illusion. [1] The influential observer Eugène Antoniadi used the 83-cm telescope at Meudon Observatory at the 1909 opposition of Mars and saw no canals, and the notion of canals began to fall out of favor.

The arrival of the space probe Mariner 4 in 1965, which took pictures revealing impact craters and a generally barren landscape, was the final nail in the coffin of the idea that Mars could be inhabited by higher forms of life.

Contents

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History of canals

The Italian word canale (plural canali) can mean "canals" (including artificial canals or ducts) or "channels" or "gullies". [2] This ambiguity also exists in cognate words in other Romance languages such as French (canal), and also in German (Kanal).

The first person to use the word canale in connection with Mars was Angelo Secchi in 1858, although he did not see any straight lines and applied the term to large features —for example, he used the name "Atlantic Canale" for what later came to be called Syrtis Major.

It is often stated that Schiaparelli intended the meaning "channels" and that "canals" was a misunderstanding or mistranslation into English. Nevertheless, the English term "canals" was used from the very earliest accounts in English, and as far as is known, Schiaparelli made no effort to correct the supposed misunderstanding if he was aware of it.

It is perhaps not so odd that the idea of Martian canals was so readily accepted by many. At the time, in the late 19th century, telescopic observers had difficulty distinguishing exactly what they were seeing when they looked at Mars (indeed, it was not until the era of space probes that a clear picture emerged). They saw some lighter or darker albedo features (for instance Syrtis Major) and believed that they were seeing oceans and continents. They also believed that Mars had a relatively substantial atmosphere. They knew that the rotation period of Mars (the length of its day) was almost the same as Earth's, and they knew that Mars' axial tilt was also almost the same as Earth's, which meant it had seasons in the astronomical and meteorological sense. They could also see Mars' polar ice caps shrinking and growing with these changing seasons. It was only when they interpreted changes in surface features as being due to the seasonal growth of plants that life was hypothesized by them (in fact, Martian dust storms are responsible for some of this). By the late 1920s, however, it was known that Mars was very dry and had a very low atmospheric pressure.

In addition, the late 19th century was a time of great canal building on Earth. For instance, the Suez Canal was completed in 1869, and the abortive French attempt to build the Panama Canal began in 1880. It is perhaps natural that some thought similar projects were being undertaken on Mars.

The notion of a parched Martian civilization building gigantic irrigation canals perhaps inspired H. G. Wells to write The War of the Worlds in 1897, an account of an invasion by Martians coveting Earth's abundant water resources. Even after canals were largely discredited, Martian civilization remained a theme for science fiction such as the Barsoom of Edgar Rice Burroughs (see Mars in fiction).

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List of Canals

The canals were named, by Schiaparelli and others, after real and legendary rivers of various places on Earth or the mythological underworld. Some of those names are listed below, with the regions that the canals were thought to connect.

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A

  • Acalandrus (ˌă-kə-ˡlăn-drəs)
  • Acampsis (ə-ˡkămp-sǐs)
  • Acesines
  • Achana
  • Achates
  • Acheloüs (ˌă-kə-ˡlō-əs)
  • Acheron (ˡă-kə-rǒn) – From Acheron, both a real river in Epirus and a mythical river of Hades.
  • Acis (ˡā-sǐs)
  • Aeacus (ˡē-ə-kǔs) – N to S: runs through Cebrenia to the junction of Styx and Boreas canals.
  • Aeolus (ˡē-ō-lǔs)
  • Aesis (ˡē-zǐs)
  • Aethiops (ˡē-thē-ǒps) – Means "the Ethiopian".
  • Agathodaemon (ˌă-gə-thō-ˡdē-mən) – N to S: connects Tithonius Lacus to Aonius Sinus, opposite Protei Regio; just W of Aurea Cherso. Means "good spirit".
  • Alcyonius (ˌăl-sē-ˡō-nē-ǔs) –
  • Alpheus (ăl-ˡfē-ǔs) – Runs N-S through Hellas. From the river Alpheios in the Peloponnesus of Greece.
  • Ambrosia (ăm-ˡbrō-zhə) – S to N: connects Solis Lacus with Bosphorus Gemmatus, running through Thaumasia. From ambrosia, the legendary food of the gods.
  • Amenthes (ə-ˡměn-thēz) –
  • Amphrysus
  • Amystis (ə-ˡmǐs-tǐs)
  • Anapus
  • Anian (ˡā-nē-ən) – After the Strait of Anián, a mythical water passage in the American northwest.
  • Antaeus (ăn-ˡtē-ǔs) – NW to SE: from the junction of Cerberus and Eunostos canals to the Atlantis region. From Antaeus, son of Earth, a gigantic opponent of Heracles.
  • Anubis (ə-ˡnū-bǐs) – From the Egyptian god Anubis.
  • Apis (ˡā-pǐs) – From the Egyptian god Apis.
  • Araxes (ə-ˡrăk-sēz) – E to W: connects Phoenicis Lacus with the E end of Mare Sirenum. From Araxes, a river in eastern Anatolia.
  • Argaeus (ar-ˡjē-ǔs) – Flows S from pole to junction of Pyramus and Pierius canals.
  • Arges (ˡar-jēz)
  • Arnon (ˡar-nən) – N to S: connects Arethusa Lacus to Ismenius Lacus. From the small river Arnon now in the Kingdom of Jordan.
  • Aroeris () – NE to SW: from "Copais Palus" to Ismenius Lacus.
  • Arosis
  • Arsanias (ar-ˡsā-nē-əs)
  • Artanes
  • Ascanius (ăs-ˡkā-nē-ǔs) – From the Trojan Ascanius, son of Aeneas.
  • Asclepius (ăs-ˡklē-pē-ǔs) – From the Greek deity of healing Asclepius.
  • Asopus
  • Astaboras (ăs-ˡtă-bō-rəs) – E to W: connects Syrtis Major to Ismenius Lacus. From a name for the Atbarah river, a branch of the upper Nile.
  • Astapus (ˡăs-tə-pǔs) – From a name for the Blue Nile river.
  • Astusapes (ăs-ˡtū-sə-pēz) – From a name for the White Nile river.
  • Atax (ˡā-tăks)
  • Athesis
  • Athyr (ˡā-thər) – From a form of the name of the Egyptian goddess Hathor.
  • Avernus (ə-ˡvər-nəs) – NE to SW: connects Ammonii Fons to the E end of Mare Cimmerium via Aquae Apollinaris.
  • Avus (ˡā-vəs)
  • Axius (ˡăk-shəs)
  • Axon (ˡăk-sən)
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B-D

  • Bactrus (ˡbăk-trǔs) –
  • Baetis (ˡbē-tǐs) –
  • Bathys (ˡbā-thǐs) –
  • Bautis (ˡbau-tǐs) –
  • Belus (ˡbē-lǔs) –
  • Boreas (ˡbō-rē-əs) – E to W: connects Propontis to Anian canal. From Boreas, the Greek name for the North Wind.
  • Boreosyrtis (ˌbō-rē-ō-ˡsər-tǐs) – E to W in curve between Utopia and Dioscuria.
  • Brontes (ˡbrǒn-tēz) –
  • Cadmus (ˡkăd-mǔs) – From the Greek hero Cadmus.
  • Caicus
  • Callirrhoë (kă-ˡlǐ-rō-ē) – Means "flowing beautifully".
  • Cambyses
  • Cantabras
  • Carpis (ˡkar-pǐs) –
  • Casius (ˡkā-zhǔs) – NW to SE: connects Copaïs Palus to Nodus Alcyonius.
  • Casuentus (ˌkă-zhū-ˡen-tǔs) –
  • Catarrhactes (ˌkă-ta-ˡrăk-tēz) –
  • Caÿster (kā-ˡǐs-tər) –
  • Cedron (ˡsē-drən) – NW to SE; connects the Jaxartes canal to Arethusa Lacus. From the Brook of Cedron near Jerusalem.
  • Centrites
  • Cephissus (sē-ˡfǐ-sǔs) – From any of several rivers in Greece called Cephissus.
  • Ceraunius (sə-ˡrau-nē-ǔs) – A broad canal, or pair of canals, running N-S from Tharsis down to between Tempe and Arcadia.
  • Cerberus (ˡsər-bə-rǔs) – NE to SW: connects Trivium Charontis to the W end of Mare Cimmerium. From the name of the dog Cerberus that guards the gates of Hades.
  • Cestrus (ˡsěs-trǔs)
  • Chaboras
  • Chretes (ˡkrē-tēz)
  • Choaspes (kō-ˡăs-pēz) – From Choaspes, a river of Susiana.
  • Chrysas (ˡkrī-səs) –
  • Chrysorrhoas (krī-ˡsǒ-rō-əs) – N to S: connects Lunae Lacus to Tithonius Lacus. Means "flowing with gold".
  • Cinyphus
  • Clitumnus (klī-ˡtǔm-nǔs) –
  • Clodianus (ˌklō-dē-ˡā-nǔs) –
  • Cocytus (kō-ˡsī-təs) – Named for Cocytus, a mythical river of Hades.
  • Cophen (ˡkō-fən) –
  • Coprates
  • Corax (ˡkō-răks) –
  • Cyaneus (sī-ˡā-nē-ǔs) –
  • Cyclops (ˡsī-klǒps) – Southern continuation of Galaxias canal, running from the junction of Cerberus and Eunostos to Mare Cimmerium. Named for the one-eyed monster Cyclops of Greek myth.
  • Cydnus (ˡsǐd-nǔs) –
  • Cyrus (ˡsī-rǔs)
  • Daemon (ˡdē-mən) –
  • Daix
  • Daradax
  • Dardanus (ˡdar-də-nǔs) – E to W: connects Niliacus Lacus to Ceraunius canal.
  • Dargamenes
  • Deuteronilus (ˌdū-tə-rō-ˡnī-lǔs) – E to W: connects Ismenius Lacus to Niliacus Lacus via Dirce Fons. Means 'Second Nile'.
  • Digentia (dī-ˡjěn-shə) –
  • Dosaron
  • Drahonus
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E-F

  • Elison
  • Eosphoros (ē-ˡǒs-fə-rōs) – NW to SE: connects Phoenicis Lacus to Solis Lacus. Means "bringer of dawn".
  • Erannoboas
  • Erebus (ˡě-rǐ-bǔs) – From Erebus, a name for the Underworld.
  • Erigone (ē-ˡrǐ-gō-nē) –
  • Erinaeus (ˌě-rǐ-ˡnē-ǔs) –
  • Erinnys (ē-ˡrǐ-nǐs) – E to W: connects the W end of Mare Sirenum to Titanum Sinus in Memnonia. From the mythical Erinyes.
  • Erymanthus (ˌě-rǐ-ˡmǎn-thǔs) –
  • Eulaeus (ū-ˡlē-ǔs) –
  • Eumenides (ū-ˡmě-nǐ-dēz) – NW to SE: the SE continuation of Orcus canal, from Nodus Gordii to Phoenicis Lacus.
  • Eunostos (ū-ˡnǒs-tōs) –
  • Euphrates (ū-ˡfrā-tēz) – N to S: connects Sinus Sabaeus to Ismenius Lacus. From the river Euphrates in Mesopotamia, one of the four rivers of Eden.
  • Euripus (ū-ˡrī-pǔs) – SE to NW, connects Mare Tyrrhenum and Mare Hadriaticum, running through Ausonia. After the strait between Euboea and Boeotia.
  • Eurotas (ū-ˡrō-təs) –
  • Eurymedon
  • Eurypus
  • Evenus
  • Feuos (ˡfū-ōs) –
  • Fortunae (fǒr-ˡtū-nē) – Means "of Fortune".
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G-H

  • Gaesus (ˡjē-zəs) –
  • Galaesus
  • Galaxias (gə-ˡlăk-sē-əs) – N to S: from Anian to the junction of Cerberus and Eunostos S of Elysium.
  • Ganges (ˡgăn-jēz) – N to S: connects Lunae Lacus to Aurorae Sinus. From the Ganges, a river of India.
  • Ganymede
  • Garrhuenus
  • Gehon (ˡjē-ən) – N to S: connects Mare Acidalium to the W end of Sinus Sabaeus. From Gihon, one of the four rivers of Eden. Also spelled Gihon (ˡjī-ən).
  • Gigas (ˡjī-gəs) – NE to SW: connects Ascraeus Lacus to Titanum Sinus via Lucus Maricae. From the mythical monsters called Gigantes.
  • Glaucus –
  • Gorgon (ˡgǒr-gən) – Connects Mare Sirenum and the Eumenides canal near Nodus Gordii. From the mythical monster Gorgon.
  • Gyes
  • Gyndes (ˡjǐn-dēz) – From a river flowing into the Tigris.
  • Hades (ˡhā-dēz) – N to S: connects Trivium Charontis and Propontis. From the Greek name for the Underworld and its ruling deity, Hades.
  • Halys
  • Harpasus
  • Hebe (ˡhē-bē)
  • Hebrus (ˡhē-brǔs) –
  • Heliconius (ˌhě-lǐ-ˡkō-nē-ǔs) – E to W: connects Sithonius Lacus to Copaïs Palus.
  • Helisson
  • Hephaestus (hē-ˡfěs-tǔs) – From the god Hephaestus.
  • Heratemis
  • Hiddekel (ˡhǐ-dǐ-kěl) – NE to SW: connects Ismenius Lacus to Fastigium Aryn at the western end of Sinus Sabaeus. From the Hebrew name for the Tigris, a river of Mesopotamia and one of the four rivers of Eden.
  • Hipparis
  • Hippus
  • Hyblaeus (hī-ˡblē-ǔs) – NE to SW: connects Anian canal to Hephaestus canal.
  • Hyctanis
  • Hydaspes (hī-ˡdăs-pēz) – From the Greek name for the Jhelum river of India.
  • Hydraotes (ˌhī-drā-ˡō-tēz) – SE to NW; connects Margaritifer Sinus to Lunae Lacus. After the Greek name for the Ravi river of India.
  • Hydriacus
  • Hylias
  • Hyllus
  • Hyphasis
  • Hypsas
  • Hyscus (ˡhǐs-kǔs) –
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I-M

  • Idalius (ī-ˡdā-lē-ǔs)
  • Ilissus (ǐ-ˡlǐ-sǔs) –
  • Indus (ˡǐn-dǔs) – N to S: connects Niliacus Lacus to Margaritifer Sinus. From the Indus, a river of India.
  • Iris (ˡī-rǐs) – N to S: connects Phoenicis Lacus to Ceraunius canal. Named for the goddess of the rainbow Iris.
  • Isis
  • Issedon (ˡǐ-sǐ-dǒn) –
  • Jamuna (ˡjă-mū-nə) – N to S; connects Niliacus Lacus to Aurorae Sinus. From the Yamuna or Jumna, a river of India.
  • Jaxartes (jǎk-ˡsar-tēz) – From an old name for the Syr Darya, a river of Transoxiana.
  • Jordanis (jǒr-ˡdā-nǐs) – From the river Jordan in the Holy Land.
  • Kison (ˡkī-zən) –
  • Labotas
  • Laestrygon (lěs-ˡtrī-gən) – N to S: connects Trivium Charontis to Mare Cimmerium.
  • Leontes
  • Lethes (ˡlē-thēz) – N to S: connects Hephaestus canal to Syrtis Minor. From Lethe, a mythical river of Hades.
  • Liris
  • Maeander
  • Magon
  • Malva
  • Margus
  • Medus
  • Medusa
  • Mogrus
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N-O

  • Nectar (ˡněk-tər) – Runs E from Solis Lacus to Nectaris Fons (near Protei Regio). From the legendary drink of the gods.
  • Neda
  • Nepenthes (nē-ˡpěn-thēz) – NE to SW: from junction of Thoth and Triton canals to Syrtis Major via Lacus Moeris.
  • Nereides
  • Nestus
  • Neudrus
  • Nilokeras (nī-ˡlǒ-kə-rəs) – E to W: connects Niliacus Lacus with Lunae Lacus. Means "horn of the Nile".
  • Nilosyrtis (ˡnī-lō-sər-tǐs) – A broad canal-like feature, running N from the tip of Syrtis Major to Coloë Palus.
  • Nilus (ˡnī-lǔs) – From the Nile, the river of Egypt.
  • Nymphaeus
  • Oceanus (ō-ˡsē-ə-nǔs)
  • Ochus (ˡō-kǔs)
  • Opharus
  • Orcus (ˡǒr-kǔs) – NW to SE: connects Trivium Charontis to Nodus Gordii, where it turns into Eumenides canal. From Orcus, a synonym of Hades.
  • Orontes (ō-ˡrǒn-tēz) – E to SW: connects Serbonis Palus to Sabaeus Sinus. From the Orontes, a river of Syria.
  • Orosines
  • Oxus (ˡǒk-sǔs) – NE to SW: connects the Deuteronilus and the Indus canals. From an old name for the Amu Darya, a river of Central Asia.
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P-R

  • Pactolus (păk-ˡtō-lǔs) – From the river Pactolus in Anatolia.
  • Padargus
  • Palamnus
  • Parcae (ˡpar-sē)
  • Peneus (pē-ˡnē-ǔs) – Runs E-W through Hellas. From the Peneios river in the Peloponnesus of Greece.
  • Permessus (pər-ˡmě-sǔs) –
  • Pierius (pī-ˡē-rē-ǔs) – E to W: connects Copaïs Palus and Arethusa Lacus.
  • Phasis (ˡfā-zǐs) – N to S: connects Phoenicis Lacus and Aonius Sinus.
  • Phison (ˡfī-zən) – N to S: connects Coloë Palus to Sinus Sabaeus. From Pishon, one of the four rivers of Eden.
  • Phlegethon (ˡflě-jǐ-thǒn) – From the Phlegethon, a mythical river of Hades.
  • Protonilus (ˌprō-tō-ˡnī-lǔs) – E to W: connects Coloë Palus and Ismenius Lacus. Means "first Nile".
  • Psychrus (ˡsī-krǔs) –
  • Pyramus (ˡpǐ-rə-mǔs) – S from pole via Copaïs Palus to junction of Boreosyrtis and Cadmus canals.
  • Pyriphlegethon (ˌpī-rǐ-ˡflě-jǐ-thǒn) – NW to SE: connecting Propontis and Lacus Phoenicis. From Pyriphlegethon ("fiery Phlegethon"), a mythical river of Hades.
  • Python (ˡpī-thən) – From the monster Python which Apollo killed.
  • Rha (ˡrā)
  • Rhyndacus (ˡrǐn-də-kǔs) – From the name of a river in Anatolia.
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S-X

  • Scamander (skə-ˡmăn-dər) – S to N from Mare Chronium to Mare Cimmerium, between Electris and Eridania. From the river Scamander in the Troas.
  • Sesamus
  • Simoïs (ˡsǐ-mō-ǐs) – S to N from Mare Chronium to Mare Cimmerium between Phaëthontis and Electris. From the river Simoïs in the Troas.
  • Sirenius (sī-ˡrē-nē-ǔs) – N to S: connects the Tanais canal near Nerigos with the E end of Mare Sirenum. Means "of the Sirens.
  • Siris (ˡsī-rǐs) –
  • Sitacus (ˡsǐ-tə-kǔs) – NE to SW: connects Coloë Palus to Fastigium Aryn. From the name of a river in Persis.
  • Steropes
  • Styx (ˡstǐks) – From the mythical river Styx in Hades.
  • Surius
  • Tanaïs (ˡtă-nā-ǐs) – From Tanais, an old name for the river Don in Sarmatia.
  • Tantalus (ˡtan-tə-lǔs) –
  • Tartarus (ˡtar-tə-rǔs) – N to S: connects Trivium Charontis to Titanum Sinus. From Tartarus, a name for the Underworld.
  • Tedanius
  • Thermodon
  • Thoth (ˡthǒth) – From the name of the Egyptian god Thoth.
  • Thyanis
  • Titan (ˡtī-tən) – From the Titans, the relatives and opponents of the gods.
  • Tithonius
  • Triton (ˡtrī-tən) – NW to SE: connects Nepenthes canal to the W end of Mare Cimmerium. From the sea-deity Triton
  • Tyndis
  • Typhon (ˡtī-fən) – E to W: connects Deltoton Sinus to Sirbonis Palus.
  • Typhonius (tī-ˡfō-nē-ǔs) –
  • Ulysses (ū-ˡlǐ-sēz) –
  • Uranius (ū-ˡrā-nē-ǔs) – E to W: connects Lunae Lacus to Ascraeus Lacus.
  • Xanthus (ˡzăn-thǔs) – N to S: connects Mare Tyrrhenum to Promethei Sinus, between Eridania and Ausonia. Means "yellow".
  • Xenius (ˡzē-nē-ǔs) – NE to SW: connects Arethusa Lacus to Dirce Fons.
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References

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External links

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See also

lt:Marso kanalai nl:Kanaal (Mars) zh:火星运河

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